Classica Cracoviensia, the annual devoted to the studies of Greek and Roman antiquity, was established in 1995 as the initiative of the Director of the Institute of Classical Philology of the Jagiellonian University, Professor Stanisław Stabryła. Since 1996, the function of the scientific editor has been held by Professor Jerzy Styka. From the very beginning, Classica Cracoviensia has been planned as a forum for scientific cooperation between the Institute of Classical Philology of the Jagiellonian University and European university centers of studies on the classical Greek and Roman culture in its various forms – literature as well as politics, philosophy, religion, law, art and reception studies.
The marriage of Germanus, nephew of Emperor Justin I (r. 518–527), to Matasuintha, former Gothic queen and granddaughter of Theoderic the Great (r. 475–526), in late 549 or early 550, was a significant yet often overlooked moment in the later stages of the Gothic War. Scholars generally interpret the marriage as a pragmatic alliance shaped by immediate strategic concerns – either a political manoeuvre by Justinian or a personal initiative by Germanus following his appointment as commander in Italy. This article revisits that assumption by exploring three related questions. First, did the marriage and military appointment signal a reconciliation between Justinian and Germanus, or a calculated attempt by the emperor to stabilize a deteriorating political situation? Second, how did their relationship evolve in the years leading up to the union, particularly after Theodora’s death in 548? Finally, more speculatively, was Germanus’ earlier decision to marry his daughter to the general John in 545 connected to his own dynastic ambitions?
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This article re-evaluates the portrayal of Belisarius by Procopius and other sixth-century sources, not to uncover new biographical data but to trace the evolving representation of his authority, reputation, and career. While Belisarius’ life and military record are well known, the focus here is on how Procopius constructs, modulates, and at times destabilises his image across distinct literary genres and narrative contexts. The methodology lies in the integration of genre comparison (Wars, Buildings, Anekdota), reception layering across Procopius’ corpus, and a tripartite analysis of authority through gesture, strategic command scope, and political-theological framing. Belisarius’ military achievements against the Vandals, Goths, and Persians are examined alongside moments of critique, limitation, and internal challenge, revealing how Procopius’ narratives balance encomium with ambivalence. Authority is shown to be both performative and precarious – shaped by systemic pressures, interpersonal dynamics, and imperial ideology. The article combines narratological analysis, spatial and career mapping, and late antique political theology to illuminate the rhetorical and conceptual architecture of Belisarius’ portrayal. Other contemporary voices, such as Jordanes, are considered to contextualise Procopius’ representational strategies and to explore the conceptual ambiguities surrounding divine favour, supernatural agency, and delegated power. Ultimately, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of sixth-century political and military literacy – not through event reconstruction, but through the interpretive layering of genre, reception, and authority in the depiction of one of Justinian’s most emblematic generals.
The Editorial and Ideological Evolution of Nikos Kazantzakis’ Ascesis
The present article examines the editorial and ideological evolution of Nikos Kazantzakis’ Ascesis, focusing on the significant differences between its first edition (1927) and the extensively revised second edition (1945). While extant scholarship has predominantly focused on linguistic changes – most notably in the final section of Ascesis, the well-known “CREDO” – this study seeks to address a critical research gap by arguing that these revisions mark a far more significant transformation. The analysis draws on biographical sources and Kazantzakis’ correspondence as well as his political essays and philosophical influences (notably Nietzschean, Bergsonian, and Buddhist though) in order to contextualize Ascesis within the author’s philosophical development and evolving worldview. The study demonstrates how the work transitions from a politically charged, collectivist manifesto embedded in the ideological context of early 20th-century communist thought to a deeply personal and metaphysical text centered on existential struggle and ascent as well as a multifaceted engagement with nihilism. Special attention is given to the removal of overt political references, the addition of the “Silence” chapter, and the restructuring of the final “CREDO”, which collectively signal a shift from political engagement to lyrical-philosophical introspection. The findings indicate that Ascesis underwent not only a stylistic revision but a fundamental restructuring in Kazantzakis’ conception of spiritual struggle and in his Weltanschauung in general, all of which seemingly occurred in a considerably short time span. This evolution is indicative of the broader tensions between literature, ideology, and personal metaphysics in Kazantzakis’ works – the article contends that Ascesis should be read not as a lesser philosophical addition, but as a central work within the author’s repertoire. The study posits that Ascesis ultimately manifests as a lyrical expression of existential anguish and the will to struggle for its own sake, transcending ideological frameworks.
Byzantine Fortification Systems of Sardinia in the Light of Archaeological Research and Written Sources
The aim of the articule is to present and evaluate the current state of research on the Byzantine fortifications in Sardinia that were constructed between the conquest of the island under Justinian the Great in 534 and the decline of imperial control over Sardinia that occured by the 11th century. Various types of defensive structures that were used in the early medieval period are taken into account – city walls, castra, smaller military outposts, as well as re-used Bronze Age and Roman structures. The observations and conclusions are made on the basis of archaeological research and relatively few surviving historical sources.
The Dramatic Structure of Tetraodion for Holy Saturday by Kassia the Nun
This article presents Kassia’s canon for Holy Saturday in terms of its dramatic structure. The content of the work is Christ’s descent into hell, which, according to tradition, took place after His death and before the Resurrection. This theme provided opportunities for the poet to introduce various speaking characters, such as prophets, and in addition to the praise section, there are mini-scenes with dialogues in the canon. This study analyses the relationship of the stanzas of the canon to the biblical canticles, and shows the poet’s creative arrangements in the construction of the odes of the canon, as well as in their number. Kassia introduces many different speaking subjects in the work, making the structure of the canon, intended to be sung during services in monasteries, very dramatic and reminiscent of an older type of liturgical poetry, namely kontakia. The dramatic dimension also applies to the actualisation of the liturgy.
The Roman Models of mater familias and pater familias in the Parentalia by Decimus Magnus Ausonius
D.M. Ausonius’ Parentalia occupy an important place in Latin funeral poetry and constitute a collection of thirty eulogies aimed to commemorate the dead members of gens Ausoniana. Ausonius, who intends to honour the memory of his dead relatives, draws in the eulogies first and foremost their moral portraits. Despite these characteristics being more or less individualised, they are in fact composed of quite conventional virtues constitutive of two moral models such as mater familias and pater familias; ones deeply rooted within Roman culture and moral tradition. In consequence, the eulogies in memoriam composed are actually not free from literary, moral and cultural convention but rather seem to be firmly based on it. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to present Ausonius’ literary creation of the mater familias and pater familias models that emerge from the eulogies and to indicate their moral tradition and compositional function as well as the literary and stylistic techniques used by the author to show both these moral patterns in the Parentalia.
Roman funeral poetry of the end of the 4th century AD
Tracing the School Education on Mount Athos in the Byzantine Period
This article provides further evidence concerning the traces of school education on Mount Athos during the Byzantine period. Taking all relevant evidence derived from previous research into account, I add information to this matter by commenting on two references relevant to school education on Mount Athos found in the Lives A and B of St Athanasius the Athonite and on another reference being connected to Prochorus Cydonesʼ stay at Megisti Lavra monastery.
In this article, I propose a fresh reading of Niccolò Machiavelli’s work. I am interested in how his views and writings were influenced by the works of the two poets he loved and emulated a lot (if not the most); Dante and Ovid. I first examine Machiavelli’s literary culture and his relationship to the Classical tradition. I then discuss the reception of Ovid in the Middle Ages and in Dante, and then in Machiavelli, as I finally look at the relationship of the author of The Prince and The Discourses to his great Florentine predecessor. In doing so, I will try to show that this particular poetic tradition inspires and guides not only Machiavelli’s lesser-known poetic works, but also his famous and highly influential writings.
This paper focuses on jokes and wordplays that are based on ambiguity in ancient literary sources. It begins with a simplified definition of ambiguity and illustrates its significance for humour. Next, the ancient theories of humour are presented, particularly the sources of laughter as elicited by Quintilian and Cicero. Aristotle’s categorisation of ambiguity will be helpful in analysing the different kinds of jokes they are the source of. This will lead into a catalogue of ambiguous jokes to showcase the range of this form. As expected, this begins with the comic poets Aristophanes and Plautus. I present also a few jokes from the Philogelos, a joke collection from approximately the fourth century AD, and conclude with jokes from Cicero and Augustus, as transmitted by Macrobius in his Saturnalia. As Quintilian (and Cicero in some sense) provides in his rhetorical handbook a rather – nomen omen – ambiguous evaluation of the jokes based on ambiguity I attempt to show a possible explanation of this apparent critique.
Absent Women, the Modern Greek School Canon and – Maybe? – Communist Nostalgia in Greece
Although Greece was not incorporated into the Soviet Bloc and the beaten Communist partisans were forced to leave or to remain silent – and obedient, nevertheless contemporary Greek culture is permeated by nostalgia for Communism, by the thought: how it would have been if we had shared the Communist dogma with our northern neighbours? There is no 1989 milestone in Greece, but there is another transformation, that of 1974, with the fall of the ultra-rightist junta. Then the leftist political scene was finally un-gagged. Since then, the Communist sentiments – expressed through ideology, motives, and aesthetics – have been present in public life and in the literary canon. The text explores how the position of women is represented in the canon and how this may also be attributed to the nostalgia for Communism. Women are often depicted as if they came from Communist times: working-class, efficient, belligerent, with the stress put on their usefulness towards the society and not on their physical attributes, achievements or other personal traits. The source material is contemporary school literary texts, starting with the ballad about the enwalled wife in the folk song The Bridge of Arta.
This article examines the etymology of the Latin cognomen Caesar, famously associated with Gaius Julius Caesar and later adopted as a title by Roman emperors. It reviews ancient folk etymologies – linking the cognomen Caesar to cutting (caedere), hair (caesaries), or eye color (caesius) – and contrasts them with modern linguistic perspectives, which emphasize the name’s uncertain but likely Italic origin. Additionally, it is pointed out that the term caesaries ‘hair’ might be the derivative of the original noun and its chain of derivation is reviewed. Though its precise origin remains unclear, the name Caesar underwent a significant semantic evolution, ultimately becoming a dynastic title and giving rise to imperial terms such as German Kaiser and Russian Tsar.
Die moralphilosophische Dimension der Exzerpte: Textuelle und kontextuelle Überlegungen zur Anthologie des Stobaios am Beispiel des Fragments IV 17,3 (= TrGF IV 555, vv. 1–6)
This article contributes to the growing body of research that considers Ioannes Stobaeus not merely as a compiler of excerpts, but as an author with a deliberate editorial agenda. Focusing on Fragment 3 from chapter IV 17 of the Anthology (περὶ ναυτιλίας καὶ ναυαγίου), an excerpt from Sophocles’ lost tragedy Σκύριοι, the study examines textual and interpretive challenges associated with the passage. Special attention is given to the editorial tradition, the range of emendations proposed by modern scholars, and the fragment’s position within the structure and thematic composition of the chapter. The analysis argues that a contextual reading of the excerpt – situated among other passages in the chapter that portray seafaring as perilous, irrational, and ultimately unworthy – can provide critical insights for philological reconstruction. Furthermore, the article situates Stobaeus’ selection within a broader ethical framework, suggesting that the Anthology conveys implicit values through deliberate arrangement. The study ultimately underscores the need to treat Stobaeus not simply as a passive transmitter, but as a curator of moral-philosophical discourse.
The article examines the complex relationship between Horace and his poetic work, focusing on the transformation from the concept of performative lyric poetry to that of written epistles. It highlights the poet’s gradual separation from his creation, with the written scroll (liber) acquiring ontic status and autonomy. The study emphasizes the shifting paradigm from inspired song (cantare) to deliberate writing (scribere), portraying Horace as both a vates and a self-conscious artist. Through close textual analysis, it explores the metapoetic dimensions of the Epistles, illustrating the evolving concept of authorship and the aesthetic function of the poetic book within Horace’s mature poetics.
As a key figure in neoteric poetry, Catullus is known for his finely crafted, allusive poems influenced by Alexandrian aesthetics. However, the Greek archaic tradition, particularly iambic poetry, also played a significant role in shaping his work. Although only a few of his poems use iambic meter, the aggressive, satirical spirit of iambic poetry permeates much of his corpus. This tradition, rooted in ritual practices and social settings such as the cult of Demeter and Dionysus or symposia, centered on the sharp condemnation of misconduct within a shared moral community. The paper investigates whether some of Catullus’s invective poems might have been intended for similar performative contexts. It is structured in three parts: 1) an overview of iambic poetry’s origins and ritual associations; 2) an analysis of selected Catullan poems; and 3) a comparison of Catullus’s invective with archaic models, focusing on targets of criticism, performance contexts, and their implications.
Tsakonia is a region in Greece, situated within the borders of the modern municipalities of North and South Kynouria. The local population speaks a distinct language, Tsakonian, which is believed to have evolved from Ancient Doric. From the 1st to the 17th century, there was a dearth of knowledge regarding the region. While Byzantine sources make brief mention of Tsakonia and the Tzacones or Tzecones [Τζάκωνες/Τζέκωνες], an elite Byzantine military unit, there are no descriptions of the local landscape, people, or language. In the 17th century, travellers began to visit Tsakonia, recording their observations in writing. These accounts, which range from admiration of the region’s healthy air and robust population to ridicule of the local attire, provide insight into the perceptions of Tsakonia held by these visitors. In the present paper, I will examine various ravel descriptions of Tsakonia, including those by Pausanias (Ancient Greek), Evliya Çelebi (Ottoman), William Martin Leake (English), and Jean-Baptiste Gaspard d’Ansse de Villoison and François-René de Chateaubriand (French). In addition to these primary sources, I will also examine a few minor mentions, including those by Martin Crusius and Bernard Randolph. My aim is to shed light on the perception of Tsakonia, particularly on the concept of ‘Tsakonia’ itself and on the travelers’ observations regarding the region’s geography, the character of its people and language.
Classica et Byzantina litteraria eorumque receptio
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A Few Remarks on the Description of the Baptism of the Emperor Constantine in the Chronicle of George the Monk, Actus Silvestri, and the Byzantine Hagiographical Tradition
This article focuses on the 9th century accounts of Constantine I’s baptism. Sources from this period strongly reject Eusebius of Caesarea’s account of Constantine’s baptism on his deathbed and promote the tradition of the emperor’s baptism at the hands of Pope Sylvester in Rome in the early years of the emperor’s reign. The acceptance of the legend of Pope Sylvester seems to be connected with the idea of Emperor Constantine’s personal holiness in opposition to the emperors’ promotion of the emperor-priest ideal in the 8th century. However, the acceptance of the legend concerning Pope Sylvester may also be related to the perception – during the iconoclasm period – of the papacy as a bastion of orthodoxy.
In Lampadem mundani splendoris acceditur
The article proposes the reading of Capella’s NMPh I 14–15 and the relevant encounter of Mercury and Apollo against the background of contemporary astrological doctrine. The carefully outlined astrological semantics of the seven rivers and of the subsequent rising of Apollo/the Sun provide an additional insight into the complex and multilayered nature of Mercury’s travels as portrayed by Martianus, but also furnish an important indication of the overall importance of the astrological component in the work.
Ἔρις and ‘Hesiodic Society’ of the Iron Age
In this article I turn attention to the role of Eris (‘Strife’/’Discord’) in Hesiod’s Opera et dies. Namely, I attempt to consider the question of extent to which the role of the personified deity of ‘Strife’, so evidently exposed in the poem, as well as the related story (μῦθος) of the Iron Age, can be interpreted as a Hesiodic ‘commentary’ on the socio-political reality of his time.
Alcinous’ Garden – Archetypical, Paradigmatic or Simply Imagined?
In this article, I offer a new reading of the well-known passus from Homer’s Odyssey containing a description of the so-called ‘garden of Alcinous’ (Od. 7, 112–132). In the first instance, I draw attention to a context in the Homeric epic, given the formulaic language of the epic and the ambiguity of reading certain terms. In the following section, I focus on the presence of this passus in works of selected Byzantine authors, attempting to answer the question for what purpose they used this very reference. Finally, I try to show the reception of the aforementioned motif in modern times, namely in 18th century Britain, where it appears as a reflection of a lost ideal that needs to be recreated and adapted to new times. All of this serves, on the one hand, to refute the commonly held opinions repeated by historians of gardening that the first model of gardens could be found as early as Homer. Secondly, my findings also cast doubt on the question of the garden of Alcinous as a model for Byzantine literary gardens. Thirdly, they show to what extent the bearing of certain ideas can be misrepresented in translation and what consequences this issue has.
Ulysses and His peregrini amores in the Latin Love Elegy
This article aims to trace the ‘unfaithful Ulysses’ motif in the Latin love elegy of the Augustan era. Roman elegists deconstruct Ulysses’s epic profile by turning his resourcefulness, his most celebrated virtue in epic poetry, into a vice; as a result, the elegiac Ulysses is a cunning sailor who charms women at every port he stops at, always being at the ready to sail away. This image of the epic hero is assessed in two conflicting ways: he is either judged for his insolent erotic behaviour, or he is applauded as the ideal ‘casual lover’, enviable to lovers who are unable to resist their self-destructing, obsessive passions.
Two Remarks on the Nature of the Breviarium of Patriarch Nikephoros of Constantinople and its Final Chapters
In the last modern edition of Nikephoros’ Breviarium (Mango 1990), the editor stated that this work is nothing but a few chronicle sources rewritten in Attic style (maybe sentence by sentence) and that the text shows clear signs of progressive weariness at the end of the narrative. Even if contested by some scholars, Mango’s view on Nikephoros and his work prevails. Careful analysis of the story of deposition and execution of patriarch Constantine (c. 83–84) proves that Nikephoros consciously rearranged his source material to create his own narrative and present the events in a smooth way; it also explains whence comes the supposedly confused chronology in this part of the text. Secondly, the comparison of the Nikephoros’ (c. 86) and Theophanes’ (443, 22–26) descriptions of destructions done in the imperial palace by patriarch Niketas shows that Nikephoros did rewrite his source material in a classical way par excellence, even at the very end of the work. These remarks indicate the need of rethinking or, at least, nuancing Mango’s view on the nature of the Breviarium.
Comparing is a base operation in the description of foreigners. Yet, its role in Hellenistic ethnography is still understudied. The paper looks at practices of comparing in the ethnographic texts of Polybius, Posidonius and Strabo in the 2nd and 1st century BC, which served to integrate the (newly discovered) peoples of western Europe into Greek views of the world. It shows both that the conquest of these areas by the Romans changed Greek perceptions of western ‘barbarians’ and that older ethnographic traditions were still retained.
ἐγώ, ἡμεῖϛ, ὑμεῖϛ – Constructing Identity of a Speaker in Reference to His Audience in the Political Speeches of Demosthenes and the Political Writings of Isocrates
In this paper I would like to focus on the very basic philological question of frequency and context of utterances in the first person singular and plural as well as the second person plural in the deliberative speeches of Demosthenes and the political writings of Isocrates imitating deliberative speech. In this genre of oratory self-presentation of a speaker and the way he constructs his relationship with the audience seem crucial for the effectiveness of persuasion. In this respect, it is interesting to notice differences between Demosthenes and Isocrates. Both clearly mark their own positions as opposed to opinions of the others and eagerly employ verbs in the first person singular (or personal pronouns ‘mine’, ‘my’), especially in the opening sections of speeches, but, when it comes to the analysis of past events, the deliberation of present condition or advice for the future, Demosthenes tends to speak in the second person plural standing literally and metaphorically versus the Athenians, while Isocrates chooses the first person plural as if he was trying to erase the division between himself and his audience. This tendency might be explained by aesthetic preferences and individual dispositions of both orators, nevertheless I would like to argue that some less subjective reason could be taken into consideration.
The Rivalry of Procopius of Caesarea and Antonina the Patrician
Procopius of Caesarea traveled with the household of the general Belisarius for many years. If his Secret History is any indication, the historian gained a rich acquaintance with Belisarius’s formidable wife, Antonina. It is possible that the negative treatment of Antonina in the Secret History reflects a rivalry between her and Procopius. This competition becomes most clear when examining the moments in which Procopius becomes a participant in his own narrative of the History of the Wars, and especially in the attempt to resupply Rome (under siege by the Goths) from Naples in 537 AD. Although the historian portrays this moment, when Belisarius entrusted him with fetching reinforcements and supplies for the beleaguered Roman army, as his time to shine, Procopius was upstaged by Antonina. If there was a competition for influence with Belisarius, it seems to have been one that Antonina won handily. It is worth therefore examining the outrageous critiques of Antonina in the Secret History through the lens of a disappointed or even revengeful Procopius.
The article presents an edition, prose translation, and commentary concerning a Humanist Greek poem composed by Michael Retell and published in Danzig in 1571. The poem is dedicated to the origin of the academic mace as a symbol of authority and power within the Danzig academic school (Gymnasium Dantiscanum). Through an analysis of this text, the study aims to shed light on some organisational aspects of the renowned Reformed school during its formative period and to highlight the contributions of a talented yet lesser-known Hellenist of the Polish Renaissance.
When You Praise the Ruler, Do not Hesitate to Boast Your Own Talent – Analysis of the Poem Heraclias, Book I, Verses: 1–139 of George of Pisidia
The poems of George of Pisidia – the court poet of the Emperor Heraclius – are not only an important historical source for the reign of this Byzantine ruler, but also an expression of the extraordinary erudition and talent of their author. The subject of this article is an analysis concerning a fragment of one of them – Heraclias. In this epic, which is a praise of the emperor’s reign, the poet with true virtuosity weaves references to the traditions and culture of pagan and Christian antiquity into the historical narrative. Based on rhetorical recommendations, he gives his poem a laudatory character. Pisides creates an extraordinary, surprisingly coherent work. The poet’s erudition is revealed not only by the content but also by the compositional devices of his works.
The Discourse on the Difference Between Audacity and Real Fortitude in De bellis by Procopius of Caesarea
In De bellis by Procopius of Caesarea, there are multiple, though quite dispersed, instances of a discourse concentrated thematically on the distinction between true fortitude and audacity, with the latter being a mere semblance of the former, and actually a vice that is just the opposite of fortitude. The weight of this discourse comes from the role played by the virtue of fortitude in Procopius’ vision of history – being, on the one hand, the proper motive for preserving the remembrance of martial deeds and, on the other hand, the human-related factor that makes the greatest impact on the course of history. To understand this discourse properly, we need to abandon modern insights (with the mediaeval origin) expressed by concepts such as ‘courage’ and ‘bravery’ that blurred the boundary between virtue and emotion. Analysis of this discourse points to a relationship between real fortitude and prudence/integrity, while audacity is related to cowardice in the sense that it turns into the latter instantly in the face of danger (a stereotypical characteristic of villains in Antiquity). Likewise, seeking a certain death would be an act of audacity, not fortitude. However, a closer analysis of individual cases within this discourse shows a surprising rule: nearly all of them are examples of the moral philosophy applied in a perverse manner, to justify often disgraceful acts. Procopius himself, even though considering the reckless risking of one’s life as unworthy of fortitude, looks with admiration on all those who choose fighting until the end over accepting the shame of surrender (including also the opponents of Rome such as Vandals, Goths, and Persians). It appears then that the Late-Antique historiographer had already viewed the Platonic-Aristotelean distinction of fortitude and audacitywith some reserve, being closer in spirit to a new conception of fortitude, later on to be expressed by the term ‘courage’.
This paper examines Procopius’ discussion of the Palm Grove presented in his two works: Wars and Buildings – a topic that has received only passing attention in the scholarship. Based on a closer look at Procopius’ language (he mostly uses a singular form of φοινικών); broader contextual questions (Abu Karib); the archaeobotanical history of selected sites in the Hijāz; a consideration of comparative textual sources like Nonnosus; and an assessment of the potential distance between the Roman Empire and the Palm Grove, I argue that the most likely modern location of this place is Madā’in Salīh or, somewhat more likely, Taymā, both in contemporary Saudi Arabia.