Politeja is published by the Faculty of International and Political Studies of the Jagiellonian University, where a circle has formed of academics perfectly qualified for undertaking such reflection. It seems that it is in this particular unit of the Jagiellonian University that such reflection finds a forum perfectly equipped for an in-depth and solid analysis of phenomena of present-day relevance, both cultural and political, given that it has combined units existing for a long time with newly established ones, albeit in both cases comprising experienced researchers capable of looking at the same phenomena from various vantage points.
The paper discusses anti-immigrant rhetoric in three countries: the United Kingdom, Ireland and Sweden, covering the period of 2020 – 2024. Based on an in-depth analysis of the statements issued by leading politicians of the countries and civic expressions in the form of protests and demonstrations, some common traits can be identified as leading motives in the public populistic discourse. The three shades of populism have, however, their distinctions stemming from cultural, political and economic specifics of the countries. Deconstructing of the internal pattern of the populistic discourse may help liberal democracies respond effectively to the challenges posed by simplistic and thus often misleading rhetoric.
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Export of Polish Machinery Industry to Türkiye 2015-2021
The article examines the dynamics of Polish machinery exports to Türkiye between 2015 and 2021, using Complex Interdependence Theory as the analytical framework. It highlights the historical, political, and economic context of Polish-Turkish relations, emphasising the role of non-state actors, trade institutions, and market mechanisms in shaping bilateral trade. Special attention is given to the case study of Fabryka Wentylatorów FAWENT S.A., a Polish industrial fan manufacturer, whose long-standing engagement with Turkish power plants and mines illustrates how industrial cooperation develops beyond traditional political or military concerns. The study demonstrates that despite geopolitical uncertainties and economic fluctuations, trade between Poland and Türkiye has shown resilience and potential for growth. The complementary industrial structures of both countries – particularly in the machinery, automotive, and energy sectors – facilitate mutual benefits and future opportunities for deepening cooperation. Findings confirm that Polish exports, driven by competitiveness and adaptability, are an important component of strengthening interdependence and expanding economic diplomacy in the Middle East region.
The Role of United Arab Emirates in Palestinian Development
Drawing upon the foreign policy change theoretical framework, the article discusses potentialities for the United Arab Emirates pragmatic involvement in the (re)construction of the Gaza Strip after the war initiated in October 2023 by Hamas, and more broadly, in possible future Palestinian state- and nationbuilding. It analyses relevant Emirati internal reforms, foreign policy evolution, history of relations with the Palestinians, including regional context and development aid, as well as Emirati war-time agency. The findings relate the change of Emirati foreign policy to the renewal of its leadership and regional developments, yet without a redefinition of its fundamental goals. Said change involves a regionalisation effort meant at promoting stability, cooperation and peace within the nation-states’ based system, including the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
„Ideologiczny krytycyzm” do (niektórych) tekstów biblijnych zastosowany. Perspektywa historyka myśli politycznej
„IDEOLOGICAL CRITICISM” APPLIED TO (SOME) BIBLICAL TEXTS. A HISTORIAN’S OF POLITICAL THOUGHT PERSPECTIVE Debates around the meaning of the term „ideology” have been going on for three centuries. The theses proclaimed by Destutt de Tracy in the eighteenth century are juxtaposed with the findings of Karl Marx in the nineteenth century, and critically discussed in the twentieth century, e.g. by Karl Mannheim and Louis Althusser. The text, in which Althusser acknowledged that once the Church, and half a century ago the school, were the main tools used by the state apparatus to spread ideologies rather than ideology, is sometimes considered to be the source of the research approach called ideological criticism. An approach that is also increasingly used in biblical texts in order to show the entanglement of their authors in their respective cultural contexts and the ideological perpetuation of the domination of the current hegemons. In particular, the writings of Saints Paul and John are meant to reveal the ideological attitude of believers in Jesus Christ as God incarnate, who is not entangled in the cultural contexts of men.
Egalitarianism and Its Metamorphosis into ‘Easy Morality’
This article addresses a critique of contemporary egalitarianism that, while certainly present, has not been prominent in the relevant literature on equality. Rather than examining internal flaws in the concept of equality itself, it asks whether the dominant form of egalitarianism in current political discourse – particularly within liberal and left-liberal agendas – has become selectively applied in ways that undermine its foundational aims. Specifically, in the paper the claim is made that this contemporary form of egalitarianism: (a) foregrounds peripheral issues over core egalitarian concerns; (b) does so at the expense of addressing the condition of the worst-off; and (c) can be best understood through the lens of ‘easy morality’ – a normative posture marked by minimal personal cost, misaligned ethical priorities (ordo amoris), and broad social approval that masks its limitations. It argues that central egalitarian concerns – such as wealth concentration, global poverty, and middle-class decline – have been sidelined in favour of less demanding but more culturally salient causes. Finally, the paper proposes several hypotheses regarding the socio-cultural and political factors contributing to this shift.
Hegla naszego powszedniego. Buribunkowie Carla Schmitta jako satyryczna dystopia
CARL SCHMITT’S DIE BURIBUNKEN AS A SATIRICAL DYSTOPIA The paper focuses on some early writings of the German legal and political thinker Carl Schmitt. During the First World War Schmitt published three essays in the Catholic journal Summa. In this paper I aver that those three articles – though remarkably various in content and literary form – are connected thematically and conceptually. The paper particularly attempts at an interpretation of Die Buribunken which is apparently only dystopian text in Schmitt’s oeuvre. I try to show in what ways it engages with modernity and Hegelian philosophy of history. I also point out rather surprising topicality of the text in the digital age.
„To, co społeczne”… Wobec współczesnych zagrożeń cywilizacyjnych (wstępny rekonesans)
“WHAT IS SOCIAL”… TOWARDS CONTEMPORARY CIVILIZATION THREATS The topic of consideration is the analysis of a set of concepts developed by Bruno Latour (1947-2022) – a French anthropologist, sociologist and philosopher of science, which – according to the mentioned researcher – can replace the strict distinction between what is technological and what is social. The aim of the considerations is to answer the question whether the concepts proposed by the author of After Lockdown: A Metamorphosis: ‘association’, ‘substitution’ and ‘translation’ – really allow us to go beyond the opposition: social versus technological? Is it possible to reformulate traditional statements regarding social order, power, domination, and therefore also potential threats to civilization? Methodology: analysis of scientific and media discourse.
Umberto Bossi, the Lombard labourer and would-be doctor and later legendary founder of the populist right-wing political party Northern League, is one of the greatest exponents of the so-called second Italian Republic. By founding the Lombard League in 1984 – which later, together with other autonomist groups, evolved into the Northern League – he aimed to instil regional pride and identity among the northern Italian population. Using historical memory, Celtic mythology, tribal culture, and folklore, he crafted a compelling narrative that resonated with diverse social groups. This paper examines Bossi’s charismatic leadership as the iconic founding father and long-time leader of the oldest party in the Italian Republic. His role as a significant political personality is analysed through his promotion of Padania, a proposed independent nation and state in northern Italy. The article analyses how Bossi used issues of culture, regional identity, criticism of centralism, and demands for autonomy to create a coherent political movement. Empirically, it draws on both discourse analysis and source materials, revealing Bossi’s key communication strategies from the founding of the Lombard League in 1984 until the European elections in June 2024.
The Structure, Decision-Making Process and Actorsin the EU Inter-Governmental Conference
The subject of the analysis is the structure, decision-making process and actors of the intergovernmental conference as an instrument for the revision of the European Union’s political system. The author divides intergovernmental conferences into constitutional conferences and conferences ad hoc. The analysis leads the author to two main conclusions. Firstly, an intergovernmental conference is a diplomatic conference where representatives of the governments of the European Union member states negotiate to prepare a founding or revision treaty of the EU. However, an intergovernmental conference differs from a classical international conference within the meaning of the Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969. Secondly, the greatest influence on the course and outcome of an intergovernmental conference is exerted by the governments of the Member States and the intergovernmental institutions of the EU, while the role of the supranational institutions of the EU is limited.
The Polish Marco Polo – Explorer of Zhōngguó
The failed diplomatic mission of Michael Boym is still a little-known episode. Nevertheless, Boym’s legacy goes beyond his missionary and political activities. This tireless researcher left us a collection of invaluable treatises that introduced Europeans to various phenomena of imperial China that were unknown at the time. Europe owes Boym a great deal of reliable knowledge about Chinese geography, history, philosophy, medicine, nature, local folklore and even astronomy. Boym’s rich scholarly output in these numerous subject areas, which was created during his numerous travels, is astonishing.
Góry – Polityka – Pamięć. Percepcja świata komunistycznego w relacjach członków Klubu Wysokogórskiego Kraków
MOUNTAINS – POLITICS – MEMORY: PERCEPTION OF THE COMMUNIST WORLD IN THE RECOLLECTIONS OF MEMBERS OF THE KRAKÓW HIGH-MOUNTAIN CLUB The article is an attempt to distinguish the components of the concept of communism and to reveal the ways of perception of various communist subsystems, basing on reports written by the members of Kraków High Mountain Club, who pursued their objectives concerning mountain exploration in the countries of ‘socialist democracy’, in the years 1971-1991. Archival materials and interview with participants of the aforementioned expeditions are the basis for the analysis. At that time experiencing various manifestations of the communist system in different countries was for the members of such trips a secondary element rather that the main preoccupation. However, now it seems to be the core of the transferred memories. The author of the article is trying to introduce and define the components of the concept of ‘environmental memory’ and he’s going to indicate its relation to selected notions defined by Jan Assmann: individual memory, generational memory, cultural memory.
Bliski Wschód w polityce zagranicznej Chin w erze Xi Jinpinga
THE MIDDLE EAST IN CHINA’S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE XI JINPING ERA: THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC CULTURE The article puts forward a hypothesis according to which cooperation with Middle Eastern countries is primarily intended to ensure China the status of a superpower in the international system. The theory of neoclassical realism was chosen as the theoretical basis, and strategic culture was chosen as the intervening variable. Based on Charles Kupchan’s concepts, six images were identified in China’s contemporary strategic culture. In this light, China creates a broadly understood alternative for Middle Eastern countries and pursues its interests. Thanks to cooperation with Middle Eastern countries, the PRC is gaining significant support, its position in the UN is strengthening, and initiatives such as the March 2023 mediation are increasing prestige. At the same time, they have access to the necessary natural resources and stable cooperation with Arab countries and Iran in the region, and their military importance is gradually increasing. China can give Middle Eastern countries what the US cannot – anything to climb and gain the same importance as their biggest rival.
Środowisko informacyjne oraz operacje wpływu Rosji i Chin w Iraku
INFORMATION ENVIRONMENT AND RUSSIAN AND CHINESE INFLUENCE OPERATIONS IN IRAQ The article presents an analysis of the information environment in Iraq and the Russian and Chinese FIMI (Foreign Information Manipulation and Interference) operations conducted there, targeting Western influence, propagating the Russian narrative and building their own resources of influence. For this purpose, the social and psychological sensitivities of the local societies are exploited in order to appropriately adjust the narratives. The research presented in this article is related to the Shaffaf project, carried out by the Info Ops Polska Foundation in order to counter influence and disinformation operations conducted in the Middle East, which target the image of Poland and the West as well as democratic values. The methodological basis is the NATO doctrine „Allied Joint Doctrine for Information Operations”.
The Hyperactive Foreign Policy of a Rentier State
The article examines Qatar’s foreign policy during the reign of Emir Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (1995–2013), focusing on the foundations and instruments of its ambitious, hyperactive, and transformative approach. It highlights how this small rentier state developed and adapted its foreign policy strategy over time. Article frames the hyperactive foreign policy of a small state as a temporal phenomenon, pointing out to the unintended consequences of a hyperactive foreign policy leading eventually to its recalibration.
PROVOCATION OR A LESSON IN TOLERANCE? THE GARDENER (2012) BY MOHSEN MAKHMALBAF AND ITS REPERCUSSIONS IN THE CONTEXT OF IRAN–ISRAEL RELATIONS The article explores the reasons for the split reception of The Gardener (2012), a documentary film directed by Mohsen Makhmalbaf. The film follows a filmmaker and his son as they travel to Israel to learn about the Baha’i Faith, a religion that originated in Iran but is banned there. It combines documentarystyle techniques with poetic visuals, reflecting on the role of religion in fostering peace or conflict. The film is notable to be made by an Iranian filmmaker in Israel, a bold move given the political tensions between the two countries. The Gardener gained worldwide attention and acclaim sparked backlash in the Islamic Republic of Iran and prompted a protest by pro Palestinian activists and intellectuals. The article aims to explain the reasons for these controversies in the context of Iranian-Israeli relations and to analyse the director’s message.
The Monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula in Poland’s Cultural Diplomacy
Recently, Poland’s relations with the monarchies of the Arabian Peninsula – Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates – gain new dynamics. Relations with some of these states are strategically important and demonstrate the potential to develop, whereas with the others they are rather limited, yet pragmatic. These differences are reflected in Poland’s cultural diplomacy towards each of them. The study aims at discussing and analysing the type and range of activities performed within the scope of Poland’s cultural diplomacy towards the six monarchies of the Gulf in the last six years (from January 2020 to April 2025). The paper discusses the role of state institutions as creators of Poland’s cultural diplomacy and, by presenting selected examples of cultural diplomacy activities, it explores the potential of Polish culture in terms of cultural diplomacy.
the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf
„Dyplomacja równowagi”. Między historycznym dziedzictwem a geopolityczną rywalizacją
„DIPLOMACY OF EQUILIBRE”: BETWEEN HISTORICAL HERITAGE AND GEOPOLITICAL RIVALRY. EMMANUEL MACRON’S POLICY TOWARDS THE MIDDLE EAST France has particularly strong historical ties with the Middle East region placed at the crossroads of three continents. Here, it has for decades acted as a mediator between Israel, the Palestinians and the Arab states, maintaining as wide a range of influence and strategic interests as possible. ‘The Arab policy’ of de Gaulle emphasised French exceptionalism, rank (‘la grandeur’) and an independent role as a ‘power of balance’, which provided an alternative to non-engaged countries in particular through almost unconditional arms supplies. The article aims at deeply analysing the evolution and contemporary objectives of French Arab policy and attempts to answer the question: does France still play the role of an independent and balanced political power capable of achieving lasting stability in this part of the world? Does Emmanuel Macron’s Middle East policy represent a continuation of the traditional ‘Arab policy’ course in the face of the new threats determining France’s interests in the Middle East region?
The concept of a “smart city” is an important element of progress in the economy and society, aiming to make cities not only centres of government, business and culture, but also good places to live in a sustainable way. The paper presents a proposal for a comprehensive functional model of a smart city, founded on several diverse sources, which can be used as a reference view for local government research or implementation purposes. It is complemented by a framework of “digital intelligence”, which reflects key digitalisation drivers that support the development of functional areas of the smart city. The functional model and the technical framework are then evaluated against the Digital Europe programme of the European Commission to indicate the alignment of local – city development – with the country and EU agenda.
The Role of Western Cities in the Reconstruction of Ukraine
The paper focuses on the long-term challenge of reconstructing Ukraine and the role cities may play in this process. The authors attempt to answer the following research questions: What avenues are available for cities to support or participate in Ukraine’s reconstruction? Are such recovery activities restricted only to the postconflict period, or are they undertaken while the armed conflict is still ongoing? The information has mostly been obtained from the websites of institutions such as the EU Committee of the Regions and city networks like Eurocities, as well as through emails from the International Affairs offices of the examined cities: Amsterdam, Barcelona, Berlin, Brussels, Geneva, London, Madrid, Munich, Paris, Stockholm, Strasbourg and The Hague. The authors conclude that avenues that may be utilised by cities to participate in the reconstruction of Ukraine include the bilateral channels of the twin or sister cities system and multilateral city networks (both international and national). Furthermore, some reconstruction efforts have already been made, indicating that such activities are not limited to the post-conflict phase.
Is the United States Water-Friendly? Water as a (Not) Vital US National Interest
The main aim of the paper is to present the general attitude of the United States(US) to the problem of access to water. This multi-level analysis addresses a range of issues. At the beginning, it is important to highlight the inconsistent water policy in American state and federal regulations. This is due to the hypothesis proposed here – that the US has an ambivalent attitude to water internationally, which is related to the fact that the US does not have a coherent water security policy domestically. A strong statement, and more importantly a decisive action, is absent in US foreign policy concerning water, as domestic US water policy is neglected. Additionally, water in the American economy and infrastructure is another important issue. In addition to their industrial use of water, countries differ with regard to their domestic water use. The highest average water use in the world is in the United States, which leads to another linked issue – water as an environmental problem. All of these issues are of significant importance to water as a phenomenon in the foreign and security policy of states. Despite this, water is generally not considered a core US national interest.
Mikrohistoria i tożsamość lokalna wobec dyskursu wielkiej historii (Guzel Jachina – Dzieci Wołgi)
INFORMATIONAL MEETINGS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF A JUDGE AND MEDIATOR: A CONTRIBUTION TO THE DISCUSSION This article focuses on Guzel Jakhina’s novel Children of the Volga. Based on literary fiction, historical knowledge and the experience of her own biography, Jakhina presents a microhistory embedded in the history of an imperial and totalitarian state. Reflections on local identity are linked to Volga Germany. The novel’s action, spanning the years 1916-1948, shows the fate of a small nation, its folklore, tradition and religion. Soviet Germans experience the tragedy of the First World War, the October Revolution, the Great Terror and, finally, the Second World War. The writer presented how, along the Volga, collectivisation, depopulation and the forced creation of kolkhozes took place. Much space was devoted to the causes and results of the Great Famine in the Volga. The article’s final conclusions emphasise the importance of writing about small ethos in a period of globalisation and large-scale population migrations.
Petersburg jako przestrzeń osobistego doświadczenia we wczesnej prozie Ariny Obuch
SAINT PETERSBURG AS A SPACE OF PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IN ARINA OBUKH’S EARLY PROSE This article explores the early prose of Arina Obukh, a representative of the youngest generation of Petersburg writers, through the lens of cultural memory, urban semiotics, and autobiographical narrative. Central to the analysis is the concept of “the city as personal experience,” which emerges as a distinct interpretive category expanding traditional notions of the “Petersburg Text” in Russian literature. Her prose does not merely depict the city but actively shapes its literary representation and cultural identity, blending subjective perception with broader historical and artistic contexts. Departing from the traditionally sombre tone of Petersburg urban prose, Obukh offers a subtle, reflective, and often ironic portrayal of the city, where it functions as both a setting and an active agent in identity formation and memory construction. The autobiographical dimension – rooted in the author’s personal history, artistic education, and family legacy – plays a pivotal role in shaping her literary vision. By intertwining literary, spatial, and visual elements, Obukh constructs a unique narrative that transforms everyday urban experiences into culturally meaningful texts. Her prose stands at the intersection of individual memory and collective heritage, making a significant contribution to the evolving discourse on contemporary Russian urban literature.
Reportaże Strona świata i Druga strona świata Wojciecha Jagielskiego jako przyczynek do rozważań nad problematyką dziennikarstwa wyjaśniającego
THE REPORTAGES THE SIDE OF THE WORLD AND THE OTHER SIDE OF THE WORLD BY WOJCIECH JAGIELSKI AS A CONTRIBUTION TO CONSIDERATIONS ON THE IDEA OF EXPLANATORY JOURNALISM The aim of this article is to present the main assumptions of explanatory journalism. This paradigm, which has been gaining popularity recently, allows to present complex problems in an in-depth, contextual and understandable manner. The analyses of two reportages by Wojciech Jagielski: The Side of the World and The Other Side of the World were carried out using the close reading method. The research revealed which elements, that are typical for this model, could be found in these books. The study aimed to reconstruct the genological features of both books, the poetics of reportage and the method of selecting topics used by the reporter.
The Rise of the Far-Right and the “Politics of Memory” in India Under the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
This article aims to establish the correlation between far-right political ideology and the politics of memory to study the rise of the Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) in India and the increasing attempts to reimagine memory. The course of Indian politics took a turn after the rise of the right-wing party in the Indian government in 2014. The Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP), led by Narendra Modi, adopted many policies that marginalise or exploit the non-Hindu population in India. It is evident that communal politics have gained momentum under Modi’s prime ministership, as the government overlooks many atrocities caused by Hindu individuals or organisations against Muslims. Similarly, the Modi government and BJP-led state governments are involved in the reimagining of memory. From a broader perspective, politicians frequently use mythologised understandings of the past to mobilise memory as a political tool in the present. Having said that, this article aims to study the attempt to distort history through the lens of “politics of memory”.
HOW DOES CHINA’S SOFT POWER WORK? THE CASE OF THE CHINA-PAKISTAN ECONOMIC CORRIDOR Announced in 2013, the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a multidimensional infrastructure project that has the potential to transform the Pakistani state and society. Under the CPEC umbrella, Beijing has expanded to an unprecedented extent own portfolio of soft power instruments vis-a-vis its “all-weather friend”, Pakistan. This article aims to analyze the potential of CPEC as a rich resource of China’s soft power. In the theoretical dimension, the paper juxtaposes Joseph Nye’s original conceptualization of soft power with selected literature on China’s soft power and Beijing’s practice. Empirically, the article first highlights the numerous soft power instruments deployed under the CPEC umbrella or related to this project. Second, this article outlines how the Pakistani government and society perceive China, CPEC and, where possible, specific instruments of China’s soft power. This case study draws attention to the nonmaterial aspects of China’s infrastructure projects that are often neglected. Thus, this study helps better understand this country’s growing importance in South Asia and beyond.
Pozycja polityczna partii ekologicznych w Europie Zachodniej
POLITICAL POSITION OF GREEN PARTIES IN WESTERN EUROPE: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS Since the early 1980s electoral support for Green parties has increased significantly in many West European states and now they are a permanent participant in electoral competition. This raises questions as to whether this electoral support has been stable or fluent, in which countries it is the highest and why, and are Greens still a minor force in electoral competition as it was in the 1980s. To answer these questions the study analyzes Green parties in 12 Western European countries from 1980 until the end of 2019. The paper finds that the Greens have been “small” parties from the moment of their inception until now, i.e., that gain up to 15% of the vote in parliamentary elections, though there are marked differences across different countries as to their electoral results. Ecological parties are strongest in consociational democracies: in Austria, Belgium, Luxemburg and Switzerland they gain the best results. Despite their rather modest political support they have been almost continuously present in national parliaments.
Women’s Rights and Women in Politics in the Media Coverage of the Polish Parliamentary Election of 2023 by Foreign Media
The 2023 parliamentary election in Poland was very dynamic, and women’s rights and participation in politics were among the most important topics discussed by domestic experts and media. Many foreign politicians, commentators and journalists followed the election campaign in Poland and discussed the state of Polish democracy. This article aims to present how eight European and international media outlets covered the Polish parliamentary election, especially the subject of women’s rights and participation in politics, and to investigate what kind of image of Poland these media outlets created in their materials. The authors use content analysis and comparative analysis to check whether the abovementioned issues were the subject of coverage by foreign media and, if so, what specific topics were discussed in the materials.
Wzrost zastępuje cykliczność – wpływ powstania ekonomii klasycznej na rozwój myśli politycznej
GROWTH REPLACES CYCLICALITY – THE IMPACT OF THE EMERGENCE OF CLASSICAL ECONOMICS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLITICAL THOUGHT This article analyses impact of early political economy on evolution of political thought in Europe, tracing writings of David Hume and Josiah Tucker especially. Their economic theories goes to overcoming an old republican tradition of political thought. In republican thought civil virtue was fundamental for the Republic and pursuit of wealth taken as destructive for virtue. So, the main consequence of emergence of political economy was abandoning virtue – wealth contradiction. Wealth was no longer destructive for virtues (especially military ones) and became factor creating good manners, developing arts and sciences and, at the same time, backing military strenght Recognition of possibilities of economic growth by political economist paved the way to neglect the difference, important earlier, between Republic and Monarchy. In political economists’ opinion, Commerce Society thrives in different nations, having different political systems, in all produces wealth, emergence of arts and sciences and reduces social conflicts. Thus, in different political systems economic growth similarly creates more security and freedom. In consequence the main aim of political thought became not stability, but growth.
Ochrona klimatu i środowiska jako zagadnienie rangi konstytucyjnej
CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AS A CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUE Environmental protection and combating climate change are currently one of the key trends in the international public debate in the world. International organizations began their activity in this area in the second half of the 20th century, initiating various types of conventions and multilateral agreements. At present, it seems that individual states should also include the issues of climate and environmental protection in their basic laws. The article presents these issues in the context of a constitutional challenge. Is it worth including environmental and climate protection in the constitution? Definitely yes. These are social expectations. This is the need of the times when climate warming and environmental problems negatively affect the lives of entire populations and the functioning of the economy. However, constitutional provisions may be insufficient in the fight for a better climate and a clean environment.
Partnerstwo Unii Europejskiej i Mercosuru
PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN THE EUROPEAN UNION AND MERCOSUR: A BUMPY ROAD TO THE WORLD’S LARGEST FREE TRADE AREA In December 2024, the European Union and Mercosur concluded negotiations on a landmark partnership agreement that could create the world’s largest free trade area. The proposed agreement forms part of the EU’s broader strategy to strengthen its economic and geopolitical influence through liberalized trade, promotion of democratic values and political cooperation. This article provides a legal-institutional and political-economic analysis of the comprehensive EU–Mercosur agreement. It first examines trade competences of both organizations and structural differences between their integration models: supranational (EU) and intergovernmental (Mercosur). It then evaluates the economic potential of Mercosur countries and trade dynamics between the two blocs. Next, the negotiation process is reconstructed in historical perspective and analyzed in light of political and economic difficulties. The main elements of the agreement are discussed, including trade liberalization, sustainability provisions, and dispute settlement. The paper also explores the challenges of ratification, focusing on agreement’s legal nature and alternative ratification scenarios. The authors argue that a sequential ratification formula – combining an initialtemporary agreement under the EU’s exclusive competences with a subsequent definitive mixed agreement – may offer the most legally coherent and politically feasible solution. The study employs dogmatic, comparative, historical, and empirical methods to assess the normative and institutional architecture and practical feasibility of the EU–Mercosur partnership.