Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization were created in 1991 as an irregular series which in the first place served as a forum for the presentation of the Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology and studies provided by its researchers. The series was originated by Professor Joachim Śliwa, who was also its first Editor in Chief. In the years 2010–2014 this function was held by Professor Ewdoksia Papuci-Władyka, and since 2015 it has been fulfilled by Professor Jarosław Bodzek. Since vol. 10 (2007) SAAC has become a regular yearly periodical owned and managed by the Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology.
Field Research at Tūwāneh and Da’jāniya, South Jordan: Season 2022
This report summarises the results of field research conducted in October 2022 as part of the ArTu-DTu – The Archaeological Study of Da’jāniya & Tūwāneh, South Jordan project. The project focused on the sites of Tūwāneh and Da’jāniya, where a research team from the Jagiellonian University and AGH University of Kraków conducted excavations, geophysical surveys and analysis of looting damage. In Tūwāneh, excavations were carried out in the bath complex, documenting the architectural remains and stratigraphy associated with the site’s use and abandonment. Additionally, geophysical prospection was performed in selected areas adjacent to the so-called “caravanserai”, uncovering subsurface structures potentially linked to the complex. The team also systematically recorded Arabic graffiti on the walls of the caravanserai, preserving contemporary marks of local cultural heritage. In Da’jāniya, geophysical surveys aimed to locate remnants of a vicus surrounding the Roman fort, potentially shedding light on civilian settlement patterns near military installations. The report provides insights into the stratigraphy, architectural elements and temporal analysis of looting activity at the site, contributing valuable data on settlement dynamics and heritage conservation challenges in the region.
Copyright (c) 2025 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Hunters Before ‘Diana’: examining pre-protohistoric lithic artifacts at the sanctuary of ‘Diana nemorensis’ (Lake Nemi, central Italy) as an indicator of human-environmental interaction
The excavations of the Temple of Diana at Nemi (Lake Nemi, central Italy) from 2009 to 2021 yielded pre-protohistoric lithic artifacts. This information, combined with available geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental data, enables a reconstruction of lake level changes as well as human socio-economic and cultural activities in the area from the end of the Pleistocene to the Mid-Late Holocene. The results suggest that Epigravettian hunters occasionally exploited the basin area during the Final Palaeolithic. In the Early-Middle Holocene, rising water levels, reaching approximately 360 m above sea level, potentially hindered human occupation. However, during the Mid-Late Holocene, decreasing water levels allowed late prehistoric and protohistoric groups to engage in diverse activities in the basin, leaving traces that may hold early symbolic significance. The geomorphological setting and early occupation dynamics influenced the palaeoenvironmental conditions and the patterns of human presence and utilization of the area during the Iron Age and historical times.
The Character of the Neolithic ‘Imagery’ in the Upper Euphrates Valley and Konya Plain and Its Role in Discerning Changes in Religiosity
In recent years, the study of rituals and manifestations of religious practices in prehistoric societies has taken on a new, multifaceted dimension. These studies have been inspired by a series of innovative research concepts emerging from the fields of history and sociology of religion, coupled with the application of modern methods from the realm of digital humanities. This article aims to analyze a range of objects, motifs, and decorative remnants, collectively referred to as imagery, which exhibit rich symbolism, facilitating their interpretation within ritual contexts. The main focus of the article involves a comparison of two crucial regions of the Neolithic of the Near East, the Upper Euphrates Valley and the Konya Plain, with an emphasis on the presence and characteristics of imagery. Furthermore, drawing from the same array of sources, the article endeavors to delineate the emergence and subsequent transformations of the Neolithic belief system from the 9th to the end of the 7th millennium BCE. The application of the “divergent modes of religiosity (DMR)” concept developed by Harvey Whitehouse for interpreting the above sources yields interesting observations regarding the trajectory of development of Neolithic lifeways, in particular, transformative forms of religiosity in these communities.
A Newly Discovered “Bull Head Amulet” from Tell El-Farkha, Egypt
In 2022, a new object fitting the so-called “bull head amulets” category was discovered at Tell el-Farkha in layers related to the late Predynastic period (Naqada IID2-IIIA, hereafter abbreviated as NIID2-NIIIA). Although the object displays all the typical features of the “amulets”, it also possesses some unique characteristics, such as its unusual size and lack of perforation, suggesting its use as a figurine rather than a pendant. Furthermore, the Tell el-Farkha item was discovered in a well-recorded settlement context, proving that such “amulets” do not necessarily belong to burial activities. Apart from the presentation of the find and its place of origin, a more general discussion on this interesting type of early Egyptian item raises various questions about their actual function, significance or interpretation.
Text-image Iconicity in Assurnasirpal II’s Northwest Palace
Among the most celebrated archaeological discoveries and the most debated expressions of Assyrian art is the bas-relief that stood behind the throne in Assurnasirpal II’s Northwest Palace in Nimrud. Most attempts to interpret the panel have focused on specific elements of its iconography, particularly the tree and the figure in the winged disk above it. Many scholars have sought to decipher the image by comparing it with series of panels from elsewhere in the palace. Some studies have also explored the relief’s relationship to its inscription. Despite the extensive literature on the artifact, its meaning has remained elusive. This study approaches the conundrum from a different angle. It considers the relief’s text-image iconicity through the lens of Assurnasirpal’s theology, since both express theological conceptions. It investigates the theological relationship between the image and the placement of the cuneiform signs carved on it, thereby shedding light on the meaning of the imagery.
An In-depth Exploration of an Unexamined Reliquary in the Church of Mar Tadros-Blat, Syria
This article explores an unstudied, though not recent, discovery – a sarcophagus-shaped reliquary discovered in the village of Blat in Homs, Syria. The research aims to shed light on its cultural and historical importance. By conducting a detailed analysis of its carvings and symbolic iconography, the study seeks to unravel the religious motifs embedded in its design and interpretation, elucidating their connections with saints, pivotal figures intricately associated with sarcophagus reliquaries. Furthermore, the discussion investigates the incorporation of what is known as the circulation system, shedding light on regional religious practices and traditions. It also aims to determine whether the reliquary was openly displayed or kept hidden. The current condition of the reliquary emphasizes its continued reverence and preservation within the religious community.
Christian Iconography Adorning Corinthian Capitals in Syria
This article explores the additional decorative elements incorporated by Christians onto Corinthian capitals found in various museums in the Syrian Arab Republic, dating back to the Byzantine era (4th–7th centuries). It outlines the symbolic significance of these elements, tracing their historical and religious contexts. The study highlights the diverse forms of crosses present on the capitals, ranging from the equal-armed cross encircled by various frames to Latin crosses and crosses formed by the contiguous folioles of acanthus leaves. Garlands, with various interpretations, emerged in Christian art and are depicted as leafy swags on the Corinthian capitals, featuring different designs. Additionally, the rare representation of grapevines, which held significant importance in Christian symbolism, connects them to biblical narratives and theological concepts. Overall, these elements could aid in dating unidentified Corinthian capitals in the area of study when analyzed alongside other components of the capital.
John Collier’s Paintings of Clytemnestra
The British artist John Maler Collier produced two paintings of the legendary Mycenaean queen Clytemnestra, in which he incorporated elements of contemporary archaeological discoveries. Archaeological excavations in Europe in the late 19th century included Heinrich Schliemann’s work at Hisarlık (identified as Troy) and Mycenae. These were followed in the early 20th century by archaeological excavations on Crete, revealing Minoan society, including those by Arthur Evans. Collier gave the paintings, one from 1882 and the other from around 1914, the simple title ‘Clytemnestra’, both depicting the moment the queen has just murdered her husband Agamemnon at Mycenae, as related by several classical authors. The earlier version of the painting depicts Clytemnestra wearing a costume reminiscent of Archaic or Classical Greece, albeit with accessories that have parallels from much earlier periods, specifically Early Bronze Age Hisarlık, Mycenaean Greece and Early Iron Age Greece. The later version shows Clytemnestra wearing a costume that has elements from Minoan Crete, radically different from the earlier version, although again with Trojan and Mycenaean accessories. In both paintings, Collier created an architectural setting featuring Mycenaean motifs, very accurately rendered but used in a somewhat anachronistic manner. The author considers the two differing depictions of Clytemnestra using the methodology of identifying specific archaeological objects that Collier incorporated into his two paintings and, in addition, suggests ways in which he could have encountered them. The conclusion is that for both paintings, Collier followed the principles outlined in his treatise ‘A Manual of Oil Painting’ to make use of all knowledge available to him at the time of the latest archaeological discoveries from the Aegean Bronze Age.
Ancient Art in the Collection of the National Museum in Gdańsk
Among the Polish collections of antiquities, a lesser-known set of ancient artifacts is housed in the National Museum in Gdańsk. This collection includes Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman, and Coptic artifacts of uncertain provenance and acquisition history. The only definite aspect is the acquisition of some items: Coptic fabrics from the collection of Robert Forrer—a Swiss collector, antiquarian, archaeologist, and art historian. The remaining artifacts stored in Gdańsk have not been thoroughly studied; they do not form a homogeneous collection, and it cannot be ruled out that they may also be remnants of former bourgeois collections dating back to the 16th century or German collections acquired in Gdańsk after World War II.
history of collections of antiquities in Poland
Exporting Antiquities and Protecting Monuments: Beginnings of Ottoman legislation on the protection of ancient heritage as recorded by Polish travelers
In the 19th century, the number of European travelers visiting the Anatolian Peninsula and Constantinople was on the increase. The interest they took in the Greek-Roman past of these areas resulted in intensive digging of the ancient sites and led to the illegal exportation of monuments to Europe. In an attempt to stop this illegal practice, the authorities of the Ottoman Empire made efforts to implement modern law-making. Consequently, new legal acts were introduced in 1869, 1874, and 1884. These documents testify to the evolution in attitudes toward the protection and maintenance of heritage. Changes that occurred also involved the development of museology. The written accounts of Polish travelers provide an opportunity to trace how the legalities were (or were not) implemented and enforced. These testimonies offer, though in a somewhat sketchy manner, insight into the birth and growth of antiquities collection in the first Ottoman museum.
During the 2021 season, a team of researchers from the Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University conducted an exploration of an Umm Tuweyrat site located in southern Jordan. The site constitutes a dolmen field located near the modern city of Ash-Shawbak. More than a dozen dolmens and other structures were identified on the site, indicating the use of the area by communities living in the region during the late prehistoric periods. As part of the research carried out on the site, the available areas were explored, all structures were cleaned and digitalized, and geological and material analyses were proceeded. This activity proved that future research on southern Jordanian dolmens has the potential to shed even more light on the rich cultural history of the region and deepen our understanding of the late prehistory.
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Exploitation of Marine Shells at Roman Jerash (Jordan)
The Jerash archaeological site holds great significance as one of the most prominent Roman sites in the Middle East. In our research paper, we present an assortment of marine shells discovered in the northern region of the Jerash archaeological site during the University of Jordan’s excavations from 2017 to 2019. We analyze the shells to determine their species. Additionally, we document the human modifications of the shells in order to reconstruct their possible use. The number of shells is small, but their value is heightened by the variety of species represented and the human modifications observed. The most frequently found shell are 12 murex (11 are Bolinus brandaris). Some shells exhibit perforations, which could be attributed to various purposes such as adornments, the production of cosmetics, or souvenirs.
Emulation in Painted Pottery Styles in Egypt in the Prehistoric Period
This study examines how the painting technique was introduced into the pottery assemblages of Egypt and Nubia in the prehistoric period. For this purpose, I compare the introduction process of the painting technique in Egypt from the fifth to the first half of the fourth millennium BCE and that in Upper Mesopotamia between ca. 6200-5900 cal BC to establish if they had a similar introduction process or not. If they were different, I tried to clarify how exactly the case of Egypt was different from that of Upper Mesopotamia. This study suggests the possibility that white cross-lined ware (C-ware), and probably also black incised ware (N-ware), were the kinds of ware vessels invented locally in Upper Egypt in the process of introducing the inlay decoration technique using white pigment from the Nubian pottery traits (e.g., caliciform beakers) and introducing the painting decoration technique from the southern Levant, though the painting was made mostly with a reddish pigment in the southern Levant instead of white. The pigment color used for the painting decoration on pottery surfaces in Upper Egypt might have been changed from white (i.e., C-ware) to reddish (i.e., D-ware) even for the purpose of finding more efficient (i.e., less labou -intensive) decoration techniques.
Opium Art and Truffle Texts in the Aegean and Ancient Near East
From the third millennium BC on, the opium poppy was exploited by the civilizations of the Aegean and Near East. While the terms for it in the ancient languages of the region are still unknown, the distinctive features of the harvest-ready seed pod would seem to find reflection in numerous works of Minoan, Mycenaean, Mesopotamian, and related art. This paper proposes that the corpus of opium imagery is far more extensive than previously recognized, including pins, finials, jewelry, seals, vessels, and weapons. It would also seem that certain elite women played vital roles in ancient opium matters. As for the desert truffle, it thrives in the area’s arid and semi-arid ecosystems, where the opium poppy cannot. We have no truffle art, so far as can be determined, but its suggestive presence in cuneiform documents, among them the seven Mari letters collected here, may signal that it was prized for its ability to engender altered states of consciousness, in addition to its nutritional and pharmaceutical benefits.
The Origin of the Discovered Urartian Bulla in Ziwiye
There are several discovered Urartian artifacts and among them are the bullae. They are sometimes inscribed and sealed with cylinder and/or stamp seals. The impressions sometimes contain an inscription along with a royal, mythical or ritual scene. Royal impressions include the figure and the inscription of King Rusa II. There is an Urartian bulla from Ziwiye with a stamp seal impression representing Rusa’s figure, a parasol over his head and an inscription which resembles the impressions of Ayanis bullae. Additionally, cylinder seal impressions with similar iconography and inscription are discovered in Bastam and Toprakkale. There are previous contributions on the bulla of Ziwiye but none are about its inscription or the detail of the impression in comparison with other bullae. The inscription on the bulla from Ziwiye as Dḫal-di URU (the city of God Ḫaldi). There were several cities of Ḫaldi in the Urartian kingdom but as the impression of Ziwiye bulla resembles to bullae of Ayanis, it is possible that the city this bulla came from was close to or under the control of Ayanis.
Animal Mummies in the Collections of the National Museum in Krakow and the Princes Czartoryski Museum
The collections of the National Museum in Krakow and the Princes Czartoryski Museum include four Egyptian animal mummies, whose radiological and tomographic examinations were carried out twice, in 1999 and 2021, in the Department of Radiology of the Jagiellonian University Medical College. The paper will present two aspects of the examinations, crucial for the knowledge of the artifacts. On the one hand, these are provenience research that allow to determine the history of the acquisition for the collection of both museums. On the other hand, medical examinations provided the answer to the question about the authenticity and value of the objects. Images of the inside of the mummies allowed to correlate the shape of the mummies with the animal species – in our case, a cat, Marsh Harrier, Kestrel – and to clarify the biological data on birds. X-rays also revealed the imitation of the ichneumon mummy, which, considering the species of the animal and the history of its acquisition for the Princes Czartoryski Museum, had always been a unique specimen among Egyptian artifacts.
A Motif of Parrots in Dionysian Contexts on Selected Examples of Hellenistic and Roman Mosaics
This paper provides an overview of the mosaics in which parrots are represented as a motive accompanying Dionysian themes. Based on the written and iconographic sources, the author argues that a parrot was an intrinsic element of the visual language conveying ideas of earthly happiness and eternal bliss, as well as the Hellenistic concept of tryphé.
Ancient Tokens from the Archaeological Museum of Syracuse
Called symbola by the Greeks and tesserae by the Romans, ancient tokens have played an essential role in daily life as small ‘monetiform’ objects used to get access to festivals, temples, private buildings (e.g. baths) and banquets. Produced and distributed as a means to obtain special rights ‘in exchange,’ tokens have been massively discovered within archaeological excavations or traced anew in world-wide museum collections arousing interest amongst scholars. Sicily represents a remarkable case study to understand how token production and distribution occurred in small ancient communities. Starting from the final results of the recent ERC project Token Communities in the Ancient Mediterranean project (University of Warwick, 2016-21), my contribution aims to present a novel set of clay tokens currently preserved at the Paolo Orsi Archaeological Museum in Syracuse. First, the article outlines the token production in Sicily benefitting from available data recently collected. Second, it assesses the Syracuse’s tokens mostly focusing on their findspot area, iconography and recurring types (in particular, Hermes and the ox). The article also includes a detailed catalogue of finds reporting all measurements and data.
A collective burial from the early 2nd century AD, reusing the Theban Tomb 32, built in the Egyptian New Kingdom, offers a unique opportunity to learn about the practices of funerary workshops of the time. The particularity of this family group related to an archon named Soter lies in the fact that it allows the dating of their funerary assemblages in absolute and relative terms, as well as elements of their iconography. This circumstance is helpful for the study of these objects as well as other contemporary or nearby items. To illustrate the potential of this approach, we will focus on the image of the god Anubis when he accompanies the deceased to their judgement before Osiris.
Dating of Three Sasanian Bowls from the National Museum of Iran
Three Sasanian Silver Bowls at the National Museum of Iran, known collectively as the “dancer-musician scenes,” have been considered as one of the museum’s most iconic works for the past 70 years. Only bowl No. 1 has been examined by numerous Western and Iranian scholars. Based on the catalog of the exhibition “7000 Years of Iranian Art Exhibition” in Vienna (2001-2002), these dishes have been tentatively dated to 8-9th centuries CE. All subsequent exhibitions have followed the same pattern. In addition, the dark heart-shaped decorations on two dishes have been called minā (enameling) in most of the previous publications. The importance of these three bowls (and also the famous Sasanian silver cup) has been the main reason for their selection for technical analysis, X-Ray fluorescence (XRF), and spectroscopy. However, a well-known Sasanian cup (called also “a silver musician-dancer” piece) was only subjected to a semi-quantitative investigation using XRF analysis. The XRF has been extremely helpful in determining a more exact dating for the three bowls indicated above, but it has also raised serious concerns about the dark heartshaped embellishments. Moreover, the dating of the artifacts has been called into doubt by an XRF study of Arabo-Sasanian coins (early Islamic periods) and a comparison of the metal compounds of these objects with those of the three dishes. Additionally, the authors of the present article have proposed niello for the dark ornamentation on the bowls based on these two technical evaluations. Indeed, spectroscopy was not able to answer the main question about the heart-shaped decorations on bowls No. 1 & No. 2, but it has opened a new venue to challenge the term minā, which was widely used in printed works. However, these two chemical analyses expose the possibility that the items may have been created in a workshop of the same artist (or a group of artists).
La prime testimonianze della metallurgia nei colli albani (Roma, Italia Centrale)
The earliest evidence of metallurgy in the Alban Hills (Latium, central Italy), dated between the Eneolithic and the Recent Bronze Age (c. IV – end of II millennium B.C.), is described through a review of the published materials and the study of unpublished finds. The analysis allows to understand the technological capabilities and cultural, social and economic aspects of the local communities in the pre-protohistoric period.
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Phase 5 (Naqada IIIb–IIIc1) in Tell El-Farkha. The Peak of Development or the Beginning of Decline?
The research at Tell el-Farkha provides new opportunities to reconstruct the processes of Egyptian state formation. Seven main chronological phases are distinguished. One of the most important periods in the city’s history is phase 4 (Naqada IIIA–Naqada IIIB; ca. 3350–3200 BC). An administrative-cultic centre, a monumental warehouse, and the oldest Egyptian mastaba were created during this time. The inhabitants of Tell el- Farkha owed their prosperity to the trade with the Southern Levant. During phase 5 (Naqada IIIB to Naqada IIIC1; ca. 3200–3000 BC) several phenomena are evident that portended the gradual decline of the city, eventually leading to its abandonment. No evidence of major storage facilities has so far been discovered at Tell el-Farkha from phase 5, and imported pottery is also absent in this period. It seems that at the beginning of the Protodynastic period the Egyptians gradually abandoned the trade routes running through the eastern Delta and used new ones leading via Wadi Tumilat or across the Red Sea. The engravings in Wadi Ameyra (Sinai) with the names of Iry-Hor, Ka, and Narmer suggest that exploration of the natural resources of the Sinai and the maritime routes to Egypt were highly important. In this situation only a few imported products would have reached cities like Tell el-Farkha, which may explain the lack of both central warehouses and imported ceramics. Natural disasters also contributed significantly to the decline of Tell el-Farkha. The abandonment of the Western Kom, at the end of phase 5, clearly followed a major catastrophe caused by natural forces. The collapsed walls may be the result of this cataclysm. Evidence of a natural catastrophe that struck the settlement at the turn of our phases 5 and 6 can be found at the Eastern Kom as well.
Roman Prostitution Through Plautus’ Theatre
The main issue addressed in this paper is the study of the prostitution business in the mid-Republican period from the point of view of theatre. Theatre appeared in Rome in 240 BC, and, from that time on, we find plays that are of great value to our understanding of the Roman society of this period. For this reason, we will focus on the comedies of Plautus, representing the genre of the fabula palliata. By taking this documentation as a basis, one can analyse the role of prostitutes and procurers in his comedies, on whom we are given extensive information through humour. Despite possible exaggerations, the models used by the author allow us to approach the reality of that period (the end of the 3rd and the 2nd century BC).
Construction of Ancient Houses in Marina El-Alamein. Analysis of the Demand for Building Stone
Although structures within the ancient settlement in Marina el-Alamein were built almost exclusively of local limestone, no remains of ancient quarries have been found. The author calculates the cubature of stone used in the construction of the houses, based on the knowledge of the applied building solutions. The resulting data make it possible to address the question of the city managing the works without its own quarry, sourcing limestone from subterranean structures alone.
Evidence from a Nabataean Inscription Regarding Water and Cult in Nabataea, with Some Remarks on the Nabataean Royal Family
The article presents a Nabataean text inscribed in raised relief on a bronze plate and dated to the seventh year of the Nabataean king Aretas IV (3 BC). The text is significant since it mentions the dedication of a water well/cistern by Aretas, to his god Dushara, the God of Gaia “for the life of himself and his wife ḥldw, queen of the Nabataeans, and their daughter pṣʾl.” The paper includes a commentary on the vocabulary of the text and sheds some light on water and its association with the cult in Nabataea. In addition, it provides some details about ḥldw, queen of the Nabataeans and pṣʾl, the daughter of Aretas and ḥldw, allowing an update of the Nabataean royal family tree.
An investigation into the Pottery Flasks at the Sanandaj Archaeological Museum
Pottery has a significant bearing on the reconstruction of ancient regional and transregional interactions. Flasks represent a pottery type that was more ubiquitous in the historical period. The present study examined 16 pottery flasks stored at the Sanandaj Archaeological Museum in order to address three research questions: Which historical period can this pottery be dated to? What is the geographical range over which they were manufactured given the available excavated comparanda? What types are represented in the sample under study in terms of manufacturing technique, surface treatment, decoration, and form? The results showed that the flasks were primarily produced in two varieties, round shouldered and angular shouldered, with their exterior coated in a slip or a buff, turquoise, and light or dark green glaze. Judging by their appearance (surface finish and decorations), they were produced in the Hellenistic and Parthian period. It was found out that they have parallels among assemblages from west and southwest Iran and Mesopotamia. The study adopted the descriptivehistorical and comparative methods.