Studies in Ancient Art and Civilization were created in 1991 as an irregular series which in the first place served as a forum for the presentation of the Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology and studies provided by its researchers. The series was originated by Professor Joachim Śliwa, who was also its first Editor in Chief. In the years 2010–2014 this function was held by Professor Ewdoksia Papuci-Władyka, and since 2015 it has been fulfilled by Professor Jarosław Bodzek. Since vol. 10 (2007) SAAC has become a regular yearly periodical owned and managed by the Jagiellonian University Institute of Archaeology.
Philipp Von Stosch (1691-1757) and the Forgery of Ancient Engraved Gems
Philipp von Stosch (1691-1757) was one of the most prominent connoisseurs and collectors of ancient engraved gems. He assembled an extensive collection of approximately 3,500 pieces and published the pioneering book Gemmae antiquae caelatae in 1724. Despite this, Stosch has frequently been accused of practices that would tarnish his image as an exceptional collector and learned scholar, such as supporting the production of fake intaglios and glass gems. These claims have continued to circulate to this day, and this article examines and evaluates evidence for and against his possible conscious/direct and unconscious/indirect involvment in the creation of counterfeit gems in the eighteenth century. The discovery of Stosch’s substantial archive of gem drawings, a detailed analysis of his collecting habits, and a close examination of his collabortaions with contemporary gem engravers, among others, allow us to conclude that his activities were often misunderstood. His primary goal was to study and comprehend the techniques and styles of engraving employed by ancient artists.
Copyright (c) 2025 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Antiquarian Matters and a Newly-Found Tessera Hospitalis in Eighteenth-Century Sicily
This paper publishes and assesses a set of letters held by the Biblioteca Estense of Modena. Written by G. L. Castelli, Prince of Torremuzza (1727-1792), to L. A. Muratori (1672-1750) and G. F. Soli Muratori (1701-1769), they provide data on antiquarianism in eighteenth-century Sicily and Italy. In particular, they help us better understand Castelli’s role as an expert on Sicilian epigraphy and archaeology, including his willingness to correct Muratori’s works on these subjects. The letters also disclose information on the discovery of a tessera hospitalis (Marsala) and book exchanges among eighteenth-century Italian scholars.
Three Bone Artefacts from Room R.23 of the East Portico at the Agora in Nea Paphos, Cyprus
In 2011-2019, during the research of the Jagiellonian University’s expedition at the Agora of Nea Paphos (Cyprus), more than 50 artefacts made of bone and related materials were discovered. This article presents an analysis of three objects unearthed in room R.23, located in the central part of the East Portico. This small assemblage, dated to the Late Hellenistic period, consists of a protective amulet depicting a mano fica and a phallus, a perforated knucklebone and a ring. Although the interpretation of this find – which also partially considers the coins found in the same context – remains uncertain, the possibility that these artefacts constituted a set of personal items should not be overlooked.
The Standing Caliph Coins found in Marea/Philoxenite, Egypt
Archaeological research in Marea/Philoxenite has been conducted since 2000 by the Polish Centre for Mediterranean Archaeology at the University of Warsaw, in cooperation with the Archaeological Museum in Kraków. The work is mainly carried out on the site of one of the largest Christian basilicas in Egypt and in some parts of the city. According to the research, the peak development of the city was during the Byzantine period. It was one of the most important centres on the road leading from Alexandria to the sanctuary of Saint Menas at Abu Mina. So far, more than 9,000 coins have been recorded at the site, of which late Roman minimi dominate. Among the finds are two copper coins with a standing caliph effigy struck before the monetary reform of ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marwān in 696/7. Due to the names on the coins and the die links, the coins may have been struck in Qinnasrīn and Damascus. The first coin was found during research in the 2004 season on the limestone floor in room no. 8 behind the south-western corner of the Great Basilica. The second was found during the 2021 season of excavation in the south-western urban district, in trench N1 in the church aisle.
Copyright (c) 2025 Barbara Zając http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Epimenes of Seuthopolis as a Possible Physician in the Odrysian Royal Court
This article examines what is known about Epimenes, the most enigmatic person in the so-called “Great Inscription” of Seuthopolis (IGBulg., III/2: no. 1731). It is pointed out that he is not known from other sources and everything about him is derived entirely from the text of this inscription. A number of hypotheses regarding Epimenes’ personality have been proposed over the decades since the inscription’s discovery, as most of them consider him a person with military and political power or a temple servant. Based on a new analysis of the available information, this article proposes an interpretation of Epimenes as a possible physician in the Odrysian royal court. This hypothesis fits well with the content of the inscription and at the same time is in full accordance with the realities of the early Hellenistic period.
Urartian-type Swords from the Samtavro Cemetery
This paper investigates Urartian-type bimetallic swords unearthed from the second stage of Iron Age pit graves in the Samtavro cemetery. The Samtavro Necropolis in Shida Kartli, Georgia, represents a complex stratigraphic and chronological model, combining the successive stages of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages as well as the Classical and Late Antiquity. Based on a typological study of this group of swords, their provenance and distribution are discussed and compared with the counterpart artefacts found in Eastern Anatolia and North-Western Iran. The lack of any representational art or written sources inhibits the research from establishing a clearer picture of relations and mobility systems between the populations in the West and Central Caucasus and the Kingdom of Urartu in the region of Van. The paper focuses on the transmission, emulation and adaptation of Urartian metalworking techniques. However, the research aims to analyse the local replicas, morphological variants and Urartian influences that occurred in the first half of the 1st millennium BC in the context of burial practices and goods, relying solely on morphological and contextual methods. From this perspective, the research attempts to provide new insights into inter-tribal connections, eventual military pursuits and warfare in Shida Kartli and neighbouring regions.
A Byzantine Chapel in the Yājūz Region of Amman, Jordan
In autumn 2017, the Department of Antiquities undertook a rescue excavation in Areas A and D, located at the northern periphery of the Yājūz district within the Shafā Badrān region, north of Amman. The excavation aimed to elucidate the nature of architectural remains partially exposed above the surface, with the objective of characterising the site and its settlement dynamics. Special emphasis was placed on an ecclesiastical monument discovered during the fieldwork. The study entailed a detailed analysis of the chapel’s architectural plan, the surrounding residential structures, their architectural elements and associated material culture. Comparative assessments were conducted with analogous chapels within Yājūz, focusing on similarities in spatial organisation, construction materials and mosaic decoration. These results were situated within the broader historical context of Christian communities in the region during the Byzantine era and the subsequent transition to Islamic governance. Chronological attribution of the chapel’s construction was inferred from its architectural features and material assemblages, with ceramic typology and architectural parallels collectively indicating a sixth-century CE date.
Preliminary Insights Into the Ceramic Assemblage from Erimi-Pitharka (2022-2023 Seasons)
This paper presents a preliminary analysis of the ceramic assemblage excavated during the 2022-2023 seasons from Area 1A at Erimi-Pitharka, a regional site located in the Kouris Valley in south-central Cyprus. The ceramics date to LC IIC-LC IIIA (ca. 1300-1150 BC) and contain a range of locally produced wares and imported pottery. The two seasons of excavations yielded almost 4,000 highly fragmented sherds, dominated by a high proportion of Pithos and Plain White wares. The analysis suggests that Erimi-Pitharka functioned as an agricultural processing site, with a focus on industrial activities and storage. This preliminary study serves as a first step towards understanding the role of agricultural production and storage at Erimi-Pitharka within the broader socio-economic landscape of the Late Cypriot Kouris Valley.
The So-Called “Loutro” at Thelpousa, Arcadia
This paper presents the preliminary results of the first field season of a joint Polish-Greek-German excavation project in the western Arcadian polis of Thelpousa. The focus is a rectangular Roman-period building at the centre of the city’s agora, which has remained unpublished despite its well-preserved masonry. The project aims to clarify the architecture, chronology and function of the building in order to shed new light on urban development within the small towns of the hinterland of Roman Greece.
Archaeological research in Wadi Tumilat, Egypt in the 2025 season
This report presents the results of archaeological investigations conducted during the 2025 season in Wadi Tumilat, located in the eastern Nile Delta. The study integrates systematic surface surveys with excavations at the Kafr Hassan Dawood cemetery. Particular attention is paid to Early Dynastic burials, including funerary practices, grave goods, and anthropological analyses, which offer new insights into the social stratification of the local population. The findings underscore the role of Wadi Tumilat as a strategic communication corridor and a key region for early state formation processes in Egypt, while highlighting the significant potential for future settlement research in the area.
Field Research at Tūwāneh and Da’jāniya, South Jordan: Season 2022
This report summarises the results of field research conducted in October 2022 as part of the ArTu-DTu – The Archaeological Study of Da’jāniya & Tūwāneh, South Jordan project. The project focused on the sites of Tūwāneh and Da’jāniya, where a research team from the Jagiellonian University and AGH University of Kraków conducted excavations, geophysical surveys and analysis of looting damage. In Tūwāneh, excavations were carried out in the bath complex, documenting the architectural remains and stratigraphy associated with the site’s use and abandonment. Additionally, geophysical prospection was performed in selected areas adjacent to the so-called “caravanserai”, uncovering subsurface structures potentially linked to the complex. The team also systematically recorded Arabic graffiti on the walls of the caravanserai, preserving contemporary marks of local cultural heritage. In Da’jāniya, geophysical surveys aimed to locate remnants of a vicus surrounding the Roman fort, potentially shedding light on civilian settlement patterns near military installations. The report provides insights into the stratigraphy, architectural elements and temporal analysis of looting activity at the site, contributing valuable data on settlement dynamics and heritage conservation challenges in the region.
Hunters Before ‘Diana’: examining pre-protohistoric lithic artifacts at the sanctuary of ‘Diana nemorensis’ (Lake Nemi, central Italy) as an indicator of human-environmental interaction
The excavations of the Temple of Diana at Nemi (Lake Nemi, central Italy) from 2009 to 2021 yielded pre-protohistoric lithic artifacts. This information, combined with available geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental data, enables a reconstruction of lake level changes as well as human socio-economic and cultural activities in the area from the end of the Pleistocene to the Mid-Late Holocene. The results suggest that Epigravettian hunters occasionally exploited the basin area during the Final Palaeolithic. In the Early-Middle Holocene, rising water levels, reaching approximately 360 m above sea level, potentially hindered human occupation. However, during the Mid-Late Holocene, decreasing water levels allowed late prehistoric and protohistoric groups to engage in diverse activities in the basin, leaving traces that may hold early symbolic significance. The geomorphological setting and early occupation dynamics influenced the palaeoenvironmental conditions and the patterns of human presence and utilization of the area during the Iron Age and historical times.
The Character of the Neolithic ‘Imagery’ in the Upper Euphrates Valley and Konya Plain and Its Role in Discerning Changes in Religiosity
In recent years, the study of rituals and manifestations of religious practices in prehistoric societies has taken on a new, multifaceted dimension. These studies have been inspired by a series of innovative research concepts emerging from the fields of history and sociology of religion, coupled with the application of modern methods from the realm of digital humanities. This article aims to analyze a range of objects, motifs, and decorative remnants, collectively referred to as imagery, which exhibit rich symbolism, facilitating their interpretation within ritual contexts. The main focus of the article involves a comparison of two crucial regions of the Neolithic of the Near East, the Upper Euphrates Valley and the Konya Plain, with an emphasis on the presence and characteristics of imagery. Furthermore, drawing from the same array of sources, the article endeavors to delineate the emergence and subsequent transformations of the Neolithic belief system from the 9th to the end of the 7th millennium BCE. The application of the “divergent modes of religiosity (DMR)” concept developed by Harvey Whitehouse for interpreting the above sources yields interesting observations regarding the trajectory of development of Neolithic lifeways, in particular, transformative forms of religiosity in these communities.
A Newly Discovered “Bull Head Amulet” from Tell El-Farkha, Egypt
In 2022, a new object fitting the so-called “bull head amulets” category was discovered at Tell el-Farkha in layers related to the late Predynastic period (Naqada IID2-IIIA, hereafter abbreviated as NIID2-NIIIA). Although the object displays all the typical features of the “amulets”, it also possesses some unique characteristics, such as its unusual size and lack of perforation, suggesting its use as a figurine rather than a pendant. Furthermore, the Tell el-Farkha item was discovered in a well-recorded settlement context, proving that such “amulets” do not necessarily belong to burial activities. Apart from the presentation of the find and its place of origin, a more general discussion on this interesting type of early Egyptian item raises various questions about their actual function, significance or interpretation.
Text-image Iconicity in Assurnasirpal II’s Northwest Palace
Among the most celebrated archaeological discoveries and the most debated expressions of Assyrian art is the bas-relief that stood behind the throne in Assurnasirpal II’s Northwest Palace in Nimrud. Most attempts to interpret the panel have focused on specific elements of its iconography, particularly the tree and the figure in the winged disk above it. Many scholars have sought to decipher the image by comparing it with series of panels from elsewhere in the palace. Some studies have also explored the relief’s relationship to its inscription. Despite the extensive literature on the artifact, its meaning has remained elusive. This study approaches the conundrum from a different angle. It considers the relief’s text-image iconicity through the lens of Assurnasirpal’s theology, since both express theological conceptions. It investigates the theological relationship between the image and the placement of the cuneiform signs carved on it, thereby shedding light on the meaning of the imagery.
An In-depth Exploration of an Unexamined Reliquary in the Church of Mar Tadros-Blat, Syria
This article explores an unstudied, though not recent, discovery – a sarcophagus-shaped reliquary discovered in the village of Blat in Homs, Syria. The research aims to shed light on its cultural and historical importance. By conducting a detailed analysis of its carvings and symbolic iconography, the study seeks to unravel the religious motifs embedded in its design and interpretation, elucidating their connections with saints, pivotal figures intricately associated with sarcophagus reliquaries. Furthermore, the discussion investigates the incorporation of what is known as the circulation system, shedding light on regional religious practices and traditions. It also aims to determine whether the reliquary was openly displayed or kept hidden. The current condition of the reliquary emphasizes its continued reverence and preservation within the religious community.
Christian Iconography Adorning Corinthian Capitals in Syria
This article explores the additional decorative elements incorporated by Christians onto Corinthian capitals found in various museums in the Syrian Arab Republic, dating back to the Byzantine era (4th–7th centuries). It outlines the symbolic significance of these elements, tracing their historical and religious contexts. The study highlights the diverse forms of crosses present on the capitals, ranging from the equal-armed cross encircled by various frames to Latin crosses and crosses formed by the contiguous folioles of acanthus leaves. Garlands, with various interpretations, emerged in Christian art and are depicted as leafy swags on the Corinthian capitals, featuring different designs. Additionally, the rare representation of grapevines, which held significant importance in Christian symbolism, connects them to biblical narratives and theological concepts. Overall, these elements could aid in dating unidentified Corinthian capitals in the area of study when analyzed alongside other components of the capital.
John Collier’s Paintings of Clytemnestra
The British artist John Maler Collier produced two paintings of the legendary Mycenaean queen Clytemnestra, in which he incorporated elements of contemporary archaeological discoveries. Archaeological excavations in Europe in the late 19th century included Heinrich Schliemann’s work at Hisarlık (identified as Troy) and Mycenae. These were followed in the early 20th century by archaeological excavations on Crete, revealing Minoan society, including those by Arthur Evans. Collier gave the paintings, one from 1882 and the other from around 1914, the simple title ‘Clytemnestra’, both depicting the moment the queen has just murdered her husband Agamemnon at Mycenae, as related by several classical authors. The earlier version of the painting depicts Clytemnestra wearing a costume reminiscent of Archaic or Classical Greece, albeit with accessories that have parallels from much earlier periods, specifically Early Bronze Age Hisarlık, Mycenaean Greece and Early Iron Age Greece. The later version shows Clytemnestra wearing a costume that has elements from Minoan Crete, radically different from the earlier version, although again with Trojan and Mycenaean accessories. In both paintings, Collier created an architectural setting featuring Mycenaean motifs, very accurately rendered but used in a somewhat anachronistic manner. The author considers the two differing depictions of Clytemnestra using the methodology of identifying specific archaeological objects that Collier incorporated into his two paintings and, in addition, suggests ways in which he could have encountered them. The conclusion is that for both paintings, Collier followed the principles outlined in his treatise ‘A Manual of Oil Painting’ to make use of all knowledge available to him at the time of the latest archaeological discoveries from the Aegean Bronze Age.
Ancient Art in the Collection of the National Museum in Gdańsk
Among the Polish collections of antiquities, a lesser-known set of ancient artifacts is housed in the National Museum in Gdańsk. This collection includes Egyptian, Etruscan, Roman, and Coptic artifacts of uncertain provenance and acquisition history. The only definite aspect is the acquisition of some items: Coptic fabrics from the collection of Robert Forrer—a Swiss collector, antiquarian, archaeologist, and art historian. The remaining artifacts stored in Gdańsk have not been thoroughly studied; they do not form a homogeneous collection, and it cannot be ruled out that they may also be remnants of former bourgeois collections dating back to the 16th century or German collections acquired in Gdańsk after World War II.
history of collections of antiquities in Poland
Exporting Antiquities and Protecting Monuments: Beginnings of Ottoman legislation on the protection of ancient heritage as recorded by Polish travelers
In the 19th century, the number of European travelers visiting the Anatolian Peninsula and Constantinople was on the increase. The interest they took in the Greek-Roman past of these areas resulted in intensive digging of the ancient sites and led to the illegal exportation of monuments to Europe. In an attempt to stop this illegal practice, the authorities of the Ottoman Empire made efforts to implement modern law-making. Consequently, new legal acts were introduced in 1869, 1874, and 1884. These documents testify to the evolution in attitudes toward the protection and maintenance of heritage. Changes that occurred also involved the development of museology. The written accounts of Polish travelers provide an opportunity to trace how the legalities were (or were not) implemented and enforced. These testimonies offer, though in a somewhat sketchy manner, insight into the birth and growth of antiquities collection in the first Ottoman museum.
During the 2021 season, a team of researchers from the Institute of Archaeology, Jagiellonian University conducted an exploration of an Umm Tuweyrat site located in southern Jordan. The site constitutes a dolmen field located near the modern city of Ash-Shawbak. More than a dozen dolmens and other structures were identified on the site, indicating the use of the area by communities living in the region during the late prehistoric periods. As part of the research carried out on the site, the available areas were explored, all structures were cleaned and digitalized, and geological and material analyses were proceeded. This activity proved that future research on southern Jordanian dolmens has the potential to shed even more light on the rich cultural history of the region and deepen our understanding of the late prehistory.
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Exploitation of Marine Shells at Roman Jerash (Jordan)
The Jerash archaeological site holds great significance as one of the most prominent Roman sites in the Middle East. In our research paper, we present an assortment of marine shells discovered in the northern region of the Jerash archaeological site during the University of Jordan’s excavations from 2017 to 2019. We analyze the shells to determine their species. Additionally, we document the human modifications of the shells in order to reconstruct their possible use. The number of shells is small, but their value is heightened by the variety of species represented and the human modifications observed. The most frequently found shell are 12 murex (11 are Bolinus brandaris). Some shells exhibit perforations, which could be attributed to various purposes such as adornments, the production of cosmetics, or souvenirs.
Emulation in Painted Pottery Styles in Egypt in the Prehistoric Period
This study examines how the painting technique was introduced into the pottery assemblages of Egypt and Nubia in the prehistoric period. For this purpose, I compare the introduction process of the painting technique in Egypt from the fifth to the first half of the fourth millennium BCE and that in Upper Mesopotamia between ca. 6200-5900 cal BC to establish if they had a similar introduction process or not. If they were different, I tried to clarify how exactly the case of Egypt was different from that of Upper Mesopotamia. This study suggests the possibility that white cross-lined ware (C-ware), and probably also black incised ware (N-ware), were the kinds of ware vessels invented locally in Upper Egypt in the process of introducing the inlay decoration technique using white pigment from the Nubian pottery traits (e.g., caliciform beakers) and introducing the painting decoration technique from the southern Levant, though the painting was made mostly with a reddish pigment in the southern Levant instead of white. The pigment color used for the painting decoration on pottery surfaces in Upper Egypt might have been changed from white (i.e., C-ware) to reddish (i.e., D-ware) even for the purpose of finding more efficient (i.e., less labou -intensive) decoration techniques.
Opium Art and Truffle Texts in the Aegean and Ancient Near East
From the third millennium BC on, the opium poppy was exploited by the civilizations of the Aegean and Near East. While the terms for it in the ancient languages of the region are still unknown, the distinctive features of the harvest-ready seed pod would seem to find reflection in numerous works of Minoan, Mycenaean, Mesopotamian, and related art. This paper proposes that the corpus of opium imagery is far more extensive than previously recognized, including pins, finials, jewelry, seals, vessels, and weapons. It would also seem that certain elite women played vital roles in ancient opium matters. As for the desert truffle, it thrives in the area’s arid and semi-arid ecosystems, where the opium poppy cannot. We have no truffle art, so far as can be determined, but its suggestive presence in cuneiform documents, among them the seven Mari letters collected here, may signal that it was prized for its ability to engender altered states of consciousness, in addition to its nutritional and pharmaceutical benefits.
The Origin of the Discovered Urartian Bulla in Ziwiye
There are several discovered Urartian artifacts and among them are the bullae. They are sometimes inscribed and sealed with cylinder and/or stamp seals. The impressions sometimes contain an inscription along with a royal, mythical or ritual scene. Royal impressions include the figure and the inscription of King Rusa II. There is an Urartian bulla from Ziwiye with a stamp seal impression representing Rusa’s figure, a parasol over his head and an inscription which resembles the impressions of Ayanis bullae. Additionally, cylinder seal impressions with similar iconography and inscription are discovered in Bastam and Toprakkale. There are previous contributions on the bulla of Ziwiye but none are about its inscription or the detail of the impression in comparison with other bullae. The inscription on the bulla from Ziwiye as Dḫal-di URU (the city of God Ḫaldi). There were several cities of Ḫaldi in the Urartian kingdom but as the impression of Ziwiye bulla resembles to bullae of Ayanis, it is possible that the city this bulla came from was close to or under the control of Ayanis.
Animal Mummies in the Collections of the National Museum in Krakow and the Princes Czartoryski Museum
The collections of the National Museum in Krakow and the Princes Czartoryski Museum include four Egyptian animal mummies, whose radiological and tomographic examinations were carried out twice, in 1999 and 2021, in the Department of Radiology of the Jagiellonian University Medical College. The paper will present two aspects of the examinations, crucial for the knowledge of the artifacts. On the one hand, these are provenience research that allow to determine the history of the acquisition for the collection of both museums. On the other hand, medical examinations provided the answer to the question about the authenticity and value of the objects. Images of the inside of the mummies allowed to correlate the shape of the mummies with the animal species – in our case, a cat, Marsh Harrier, Kestrel – and to clarify the biological data on birds. X-rays also revealed the imitation of the ichneumon mummy, which, considering the species of the animal and the history of its acquisition for the Princes Czartoryski Museum, had always been a unique specimen among Egyptian artifacts.