The Digital Age of Political Engagement
Social Media, Political Exposure, and the Challenges of the Digital Public Sphere
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.23.2026.102.12Keywords:
political participation, social media, online activism, digital democracyAbstract
This article explores the complex relationship between political engagement and the use of social media, focusing on the interaction between online and offline participation. While digital platforms have been hailed for their democratic potential and capacity to expand access to the political sphere, the evidence reviewed suggests that social media do not necessarily facilitate political engagement in contemporary societies. The study synthesizes key findings from recent research to highlight how algorithmic filtering, echo chambers, and the spread of disinformation distort political exposure and hinder meaningful participation. Despite increased opportunities for mobilization, digital political activity often remains limited to low-cost, low-commitment actions that rarely translate into offline collective engagement. Furthermore, the literature has not yet advanced sufficiently in identifying the causal mechanisms that explain how online and offline participation influence one another. This gap prevents a full understanding of whether digital participation helps bridge or widen existing gaps in political engagement. In doing so, the article questions whether contemporary democracies are becoming increasingly disconnected from the voices of their citizens, despite the apparent connectivity offered by social networks.
Downloads
References
Albacete G.G., Young People’s Political Participation in Western Europe. Continuity or Generational Change?, London 2014.
View in Google Scholar
Bakker T.P., De Vreese C.H., “Good News for the Future? Young People, Internet Use, and Political Participation,” Communication Research, vol. 38, no. 4 (2011), pp. 451-470, https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650210381738.
View in Google Scholar
Barrett M., Zani B. (eds), Political and Civic Engagement. Multidisciplinary Perspectives, London–New York 2014.
View in Google Scholar
Bode L., Vraga E.K., Borah P., Shah D.V., “A New Space for Political Behavior: Political Social Networking and Its Democratic Consequences,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, vol. 19, no. 3 (2014), pp. 414-429, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12048.
View in Google Scholar
Boulianne Sh., Theocharis Y., “Young People, Digital Media, and Engagement. A Meta-Analysis of Research,” Social Science Computer Review, vol. 38, no. 2 (2020), pp. 111-127, https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439318814190.
View in Google Scholar
Brändle V.K., Galpin Ch., Trenz H.J., “Brexit as ‘Politics of Division’. Social Media Campaigning after the Referendum,” Social Movement Studies, vol. 21, no. 1-2 (2022), pp. 234-253, https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2021.1928484.
View in Google Scholar
Brannen S.J., Haig Ch.S., Schmidt K., “The Age of Mass Protests,” Center for Strategic and International Studies, March 2020, at http://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/200303_MassProtests_V2.pdf.
View in Google Scholar
Cacciatore M.A., Yeo S.K., Scheufele D.A. et al., “Is Facebook Making Us Dumber? Exploring Social Media Use as a Predictor of Political Knowledge,” Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, vol. 95, no. 2 (2018), pp. 404-424, https://doi.org/10.1177/1077699018770447.
View in Google Scholar
Chaffee S.H., Kanihan S.F. “Learning about Politics from the Mass Media,” Political Communication, vol. 14, no. 4 (1997), pp. 421-430, https://doi.org/10.1080/105846097199218.
View in Google Scholar
Chayinska M., Miranda D., González R., “A Longitudinal Study of the Bidirectional Causal Relationships between Online Political Participation and Offline Collective Action,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 121 (2021), 106810, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106810.
View in Google Scholar
Cinelli M., De Francisci Morales G., Galeazzi A. et al., “Echo Chambers on Social Media.
View in Google Scholar
A Comparative Analysis,” arXiv, 2004, 09603, https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2004.09603.
View in Google Scholar
Conge P.J., “Review of ‘The Concept of Political Participation: Toward a Definition’, by Samuel H. Barnes, Max Kaase, Joan M. Nelson, John H. Booth, and Mitchell A. Seligson,” Comparative Politics, vol. 20, no. 2 (1988), pp. 241-249, https://doi.org/10.2307/421669.
View in Google Scholar
Córdoba H., María A., “El slacktivismo como recurso de movilización en redes sociale. El caso de# BringBackOurGirls,” Comunicación y Sociedad, no. 30 (2017), pp. 239-263.
View in Google Scholar
Delli Carpini M.X., “Gen.Com: Youth, Civic Engagement, and the New Information Environment,” Political Communication, vol. 17, no. 4 (2000), pp. 341-349, https://doi.org/10.1080/10584600050178942.
View in Google Scholar
Dubois E., Blank G., “The Echo Chamber Is Overstated. The Moderating Effect of Political Interest and Diverse Media,” Information, Communication & Society, vol. 21, no. 5 (2018), pp. 729-745, https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1428656.
View in Google Scholar
Van Erkel P.F., Van Aelst P., Thijssen P., “Does Media Attention Lead to Personal Electoral Success? Differences in Long and Short Campaign Media Effects for Top and Ordinary Political Candidates,” Acta Politica, vol. 55, no. 2 (2020), pp. 156-174, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41269-018-0109-x.
View in Google Scholar
Foust Ch.R., Drazner Hoyt K., “Social Movement 2.0. Integrating and Assessing Scholarship on Social Media and Movement,” Review of Communication, vol. 18, no. 1 (2018), pp. 37-55,https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2017.1411970.
View in Google Scholar
De Francisci Morales G., Monti C., Starnini M., “No Echo in the Chambers of Political Interactions on Reddit,” Scientific Reports, vol. 11, no. 1 (2021), 2818, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81531-x.
View in Google Scholar
Gerbaudo P., “From Cyber-Autonomism to Cyber-Populism. An Ideological History of Digital Activism,” TripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique, vol. 15, no. 2 (2017), pp. 477-489, https://doi.org/10.31269/vol15iss2pp477-489.
View in Google Scholar
Gil de Zúñiga H., Molyneux L., Zheng P., “Social Media, Political Expression, and Political Participation. Panel Analysis of Lagged and Concurrent Relationships,” Journal of Communication, vol. 64, no. 4 (2014), pp. 612-634, https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12103.
View in Google Scholar
Gill H., Rojas H., “Communication Mediation Model Predicting Political Participation among Instant Messaging App Users: An OSROR Approach,” Communication Studies, vol. 72, no. 3 (2021), pp. 490-512, https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2021.1899008.
View in Google Scholar
Goyanes M., Borah P., De Zúñiga H.G., “Social Media Filtering and Democracy. Effects of Social Media News Use and Uncivil Political Discussions on Social Media Unfriending,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 120 (2021), 106759, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106759.
View in Google Scholar
Guess A., Nyhan B., Lyons B., Reifler J. “Avoiding the Echo Chamber about Echo Chambers,” Knight Foundation, vol. 2, no. 1 (2018), pp. 1-25.
View in Google Scholar
Hagen L.M., Wieland M., In der Au A.M., “Algorithmischer Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit.
View in Google Scholar
Wie die automatische Selektion im Social Web die politische Kommunikation verändert und welche Gefahren dies birgt,” MedienJournal, vol. 41, no. 2 (2017), pp. 127-143, https://doi.org/10.60764/MEDIENJOURNAL-HBPG-AX73.
View in Google Scholar
Halupka M., “Clicktivism: A Systematic Heuristic,” Policy & Internet, vol. 6, no. 2 (2014), pp. 115-132, https://doi.org/10.1002/1944-2866.POI355.
View in Google Scholar
Huckfeldt R., Morehouse Mendez J., “Moths, Flames, and Political Engagement. Managing Disagreement within Communication Networks,” The Journal of Politics, vol. 70, no. 1 (2008), pp. 83-96, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381607080073.
View in Google Scholar
Johnson T.J., Wallace R., Lee T., “How Social Media Serve As a Super-Spreader of Misinformation, Disinformation, and Conspiracy Theories Regarding Health Crises,” in J. Harris Lipschultz, K. Freberg, R. Luttrell (eds), The Emerald Handbook of Computer-Mediated Communication and Social Media, Leeds 2022, pp. 67-84.
View in Google Scholar
Jurgenson N., “When Atoms Meet Bits. Social Media, The Mobile Web and Augmented Revolution,” Future Internet, vol. 4, no. 1 (2012), pp. 83-91, https://doi.org/10.3390/fi4010083.
View in Google Scholar
Kahne J., Bowyer B., “The Political Significance of Social Media Activity and Social Networks,” Political Communication, vol. 35, no. 3 (2018), pp. 470-493, https://doi.org/10.1080/105 84609.2018.1426662.
View in Google Scholar
Karatzogianni A., Firebrand Waves of Digital Activism 1994-2014. The Rise and Spread of Hacktivism and Cyberconflict, London 2015.
View in Google Scholar
Kende A., Van Zomeren M., Ujhelyi A., Lantos N.A., “The Social Affirmation Use of Social Media as a Motivator of Collective Action,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology, vol. 46, no. 8 (2016), pp. 453-469, https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12375.
View in Google Scholar
Kenski K., Jomini Stroud N., “Connections Between Internet Use and Political Efficacy, Knowledge, and Participation,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, vol. 50, no. 2 (2006), pp. 173-192, https://doi.org/10.1207/s15506878jobem5002_1.
View in Google Scholar
Kim Y., Chen H.T., Gil De Zúñiga H., “Stumbling upon News on the Internet. Effects of Incidental News Exposure and Relative Entertainment Use on Political Engagement,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 29, no. 6 (2013), pp. 2607-2614, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.005.
View in Google Scholar
Kleiner T.M., “Does Ideological Polarisation Mobilise Citizens?,” European Political Science, vol. 19, no. 4 (2020), pp. 573-602, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-019-00228-y.
View in Google Scholar
Knoll J., Matthes J., Heiss R, “The Social Media Political Participation Model. A Goal Systems Theory Perspective,” Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies, vol. 26, n.o 1 (2020), pp. 135-156, https://doi.org/10.1177/1354856517750366.
View in Google Scholar
Knupfer H., Neureiter A., Matthes J., “From Social Media Diet to Public Riot? Engagement with ‘greenfluencers’ and Young Social Media Users’ Environmental Activism,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 139 (2023), 107527, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2022.107527.
View in Google Scholar
Kopacheva E., Fatemi M., Kucher K., “Using Social-Media-Network Ties for Predicting Intended Protest Participation in Russia,” Online Social Networks and Media, vol. 37-38 (2023), 100273, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2023.100273.
View in Google Scholar
Lane D.S., Kim D.H., Lee S.S. et al, “From Online Disagreement to Offline Action. How Diverse Motivations for Using Social Media Can Increase Political Information Sharing and Catalyze Offline Political Participation,” Social Media + Society, vol. 3, no. 3 (2017), 2056305117716274, https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305117716274.
View in Google Scholar
Lee S., Xenos M., “Social Distraction? Social Media Use and Political Knowledge in Two US Presidential Elections,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 90 (2019), pp. 18-25, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.006.
View in Google Scholar
Lee Y.H, Hsieh G., “Does Slacktivism Hurt Activism?. The Effects of Moral Balancing and Consistency in Online Activism,” in Y.H. Lee, G. Hsieh, Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Paris 2013, pp. 811-820.
View in Google Scholar
Maher T.V., Earl J. “Barrier or Booster? Digital Media, Social Networks, and Youth Micromobilization,” Sociological Perspectives, vol. 62, no. 6 (2019), pp. 865-883, https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121419867697.
View in Google Scholar
Mason L., “‘I Disrespectfully Agree’. The Differential Effects of Partisan Sorting on Social and Issue Polarization,” American Journal of Political Science, vol. 59, no. 1 (2015), pp. 128-145, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24363600.
View in Google Scholar
Matthes J., Knoll J., Valenzuela S. et al., “A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Cross-Cutting Exposure on Political Participation,” Political Communication, vol. 36, no. 4 (2019), pp. 523-542, https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1619638.
View in Google Scholar
McCafferty D., “Activism vs. Slacktivism,” Communications of the ACM, vol. 54, no. 12 (2011), pp. 17-19, https://doi.org/10.1145/2043174.2043182.
View in Google Scholar
Morozov E., “The Brave New World of Slacktivism,” Foreign Policy, 19 May 2009, at https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/05/19/the-brave-new-world-of-slacktivism/.
View in Google Scholar
Mossberger K., Tolbert C.T., McNeal R.S., Digital Citizenship: The Internet, Society, and Participation, Cambridge 2007.
View in Google Scholar
Oates S., Owen D., Gibson R.K., The Internet and Politics. Citizens, Voters and Activists, Abingdon 2006.
View in Google Scholar
Odağ Ö., Uluğ Ö.M., Solak N., “Everyday I’m Çapuling,” Journal of Media Psychology, vol. 28, no. 3 (2016), pp. 148-159, https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105/a000202.
View in Google Scholar
Oeldorf-Hirsch A., “The Role of Engagement in Learning From Active and Incidental News Exposure on Social Media,” Mass Communication and Society, vol. 21, no. 2 (2018), pp. 225- 247, https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2017.1384022.
View in Google Scholar
Ohme J., “Algorithmic Social Media Use and Its Relationship to Attitude Reinforcement and Issue-Specific Political Participation – The Case of the 2015 European Immigration Movements,” Journal of Information Technology & Politics, vol. 18, no. 1 (2021), pp. 36-54, https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2020.1805085.
View in Google Scholar
Özkula S.M., “The Problem of History in Digital Activism. Ideological Narratives in Digital Activism Literature,” First Monday, vol. 26, no. 8 (2021), https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v26i8.10597.
View in Google Scholar
Park Ch.S., Gil de Zúñiga H., “Learning about Politics from Mass Media and Social Media.
View in Google Scholar
Moderating Roles of Press Freedom and Public Service Broadcasting in 11 Countries,” International Journal of Public Opinion Research, vol. 33, no. 2 (2021), pp. 315-335, https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edaa021.
View in Google Scholar
Rodríguez-Estrada A., Muñiz C., Echeverría M., “Relación de la participación política online y offline en el contexto de campañas subnacionales,” Cuadernos. info, no. 46 (2020), pp. 1-23, http://dx.doi.org/10.7764/cdi.46.1712.
View in Google Scholar
Schumann S., Klein O., “Substitute or Stepping Stone? Assessing the Impact of Low‐threshold Online Collective Actions on Offline Participation,” European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 45, no. 3 (2015), pp. 308-322, https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2084.
View in Google Scholar
Serrano Puche J., “Internet y emociones. Nuevas tendencias en un campo de investigación emergente
View in Google Scholar
= Internet and Emotions. New Trends in an Emerging Field of Research,” Comunicar: Revista Científica Iberoamericana de Comunicación y Educación = Scientific Journal of Media Education, vol. 46, no. 1, (2016), pp. 19-26.
View in Google Scholar
Shan Y., “Disinformation in Group Chat Social Media Network,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, vol. 231 (2025), 106891, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2025.106891.
View in Google Scholar
Smith B.G., Smith S.B., Knighton D., “Social Media Dialogues in a Crisis. A Mixed-Methods Approach to Identifying Publics on Social Media,” Public Relations Review, vol. 44, no. 4 (2018), pp. 562-573, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2018.07.005.
View in Google Scholar
Smith L.G., Piwek L., Hinds J. et al., “Digital Traces of Offline Mobilization,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 125, no. 3 (2023), pp. 496-518, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pspa0000390.
View in Google Scholar
Spier Sh., Collective Action 2.0. The Impact of Social Media on Collective Action, Cambrigde 2017.
View in Google Scholar
Strauß N., Huber B., Gil De Zúñiga H., “‘Yes, I Saw It – But Didn’t Read It…’ A Cross-Country Study, Exploring Relationships between Incidental News Exposure and News Use across Platforms,” Digital Journalism, vol. 8, no. 9 (2020), pp. 1181-1205, https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2020.1832130.
View in Google Scholar
Theocharis Y., Quintelier E., “Stimulating Citizenship or Expanding Entertainment? The Effect of Facebook on Adolescent Participation,” New Media & Society, vol. 18, no. 5 (2016), pp. 817-836, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814549006.
View in Google Scholar
Thomas E.F., McGarty C., Mavor K.I., “Transforming ‘Apathy Into Movement’. The Role of Prosocial Emotions in Motivating Action for Social Change,” Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol. 13, no. 4 (2009), pp. 310-333, https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309343290.
View in Google Scholar
Valeriani A., Vaccari Ch., “Accidental Exposure to Politics on Social Media as Online Participation Equalizer in Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom,” New Media & Society, vol. 18, no. 9 (2016), pp. 1857-1874, https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815616223.
View in Google Scholar
Wilkins D.J., Livingstone A.G., Levine M., “All Click, no Action? Online Action, Efficacy Perceptions, and Prior Experience Combine to Affect Future Collective Action,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 91 (2019), pp. 97-105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.09.007.
View in Google Scholar
Wilson T., Starbird K., “Cross-Platform Information Operations. Mobilizing Narratives & Building Resilience through Both ‘Big’ & ‘Alt’ Tech,” Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, vol. 5, no. CSCW2 (2021), pp. 1-32, https://doi.org/10.1145/3476086.
View in Google Scholar
Woo-Yoo S., Gil de Zúñiga H., “Connecting Blog, Twitter and Facebook Use with Gaps in Knowledge and Participation,” Communication & Society, vol. 27, no. 4 (2014), pp. 33-48, https://doi.org/10.15581/003.27.4.33-48.
View in Google Scholar
Yang H. “Chris”, DeHart J.L., “Social Media Use and Online Political Participation among College Students during the US Election 2012,” Social Media+ Society, vol. 2, no. 1 (2016), https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305115623802.
View in Google Scholar
Yoo S.W., Gil De Zúñiga H., “The Role of Heterogeneous Political Discussion and Partisanship
View in Google Scholar
on the Effects of Incidental News Exposure Online,” Journal of Information Technology & Politics, vol. 16, no. 1 (2019), pp. 20-35, https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2018.1561346.
View in Google Scholar
Zumárraga-Espinosa M., Reyes-Valenzuela C., Carofilis-Cedeño C., “Dimensiones de la participación política offline y online. Factores de primer y segundo orden,” Revista mexicana de ciencias políticas y sociales, vol. 67, no. 245 (2022), pp. 105-139, https://doi.org/10.22201/fcpys.2448492xe.2022.245.69646.
View in Google Scholar
Zumárraga Espinosa M., Reyes Valenzuela C., Carofilis Cedeño C., “¿Verdad o ficción? El uso político de las redes sociales en la participación política offline en las elecciones presidenciales en Ecuador,” Análisis político, 2017, at https://repositorio.unal.edu.co/handle/unal/68256.
View in Google Scholar
Zúñiga Gil de H., Borah P., Goyanes M., “How Do People Learn about Politics when Inadvertently Exposed to News? Incidental News Paradoxical Direct and Indirect Effects on Political Knowledge,” Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 121 (2021), 106803, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106803.
View in Google Scholar
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
