Bliski Wschód w polityce zagranicznej Chin w erze Xi Jinpinga
Znaczenie kultury strategicznej
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.22.2025.100.11Keywords:
China, Middle East, superpower, South–South cooperation, CAFSC, UNAbstract
THE MIDDLE EAST IN CHINA’S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE XI JINPING ERA: THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIC CULTURE
The article puts forward a hypothesis according to which cooperation with Middle Eastern countries is primarily intended to ensure China the status of a superpower in the international system. The theory of neoclassical realism was chosen as the theoretical basis, and strategic culture was chosen as the intervening variable. Based on Charles Kupchan’s concepts, six images were identified in China’s contemporary strategic culture. In this light, China creates a broadly understood alternative for Middle Eastern countries and pursues its interests. Thanks to cooperation with Middle Eastern countries, the PRC is gaining significant support, its position in the UN is strengthening, and initiatives such as the March 2023 mediation are increasing prestige. At the same time, they have access to the necessary natural resources and stable cooperation with Arab countries and Iran in the region, and their military importance is gradually increasing. China can give Middle Eastern countries what the US cannot – anything to climb and gain the same importance as their biggest rival.
Downloads
References
Abdeleli A., Why Arab and African Countries Stand with China at the UN, Swissinfo, 11 X 2022, [online] https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/business/why-arab-and-african-countries-stand-withchina-at-the-un/47961448.
Alterman K., China’s Soft Power in the Middle East, [w:] Chinese Soft Power and Its Implications for United States: Competition and Cooperation in the Developing World, red. C. McGiffert, Washington 2009, [online] https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/legacy_files/files/media/csis/pubs/090403_mcgiffert_chinesesoftpower_web.pdf.
Arab Leage Declares Support for ‘One China-Sovereignty’ Amid Taiwan Crisis, The New Arab, 3 VIII 2022, [online] https://www.newarab.com/news/taiwan-arab-league-declaressupport-china-sovereignty.
Ashraf J., String of Pearls and China’s Emerging Strategic Culture, „Strategic Studies” 2017, vol. 37, no. 4, https://doi.org/10.53532/ss.037.04.00204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.53532/ss.037.04.00204
Baker F., Chinese-Brokered Deal Upends Mideast Diplomacy and Challenges U.S., „The New York Times” 2023, 11 III, [online] https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/11/us/politics/saudi-arabia-iran-china-biden.html.
Belal K., China-Iran Relations: Prospects and Complexity, „Policy Perspectives” 2020, vol. 17, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.13169/polipers.17.2.0047. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13169/polipers.17.2.0047
Chang J. I-wei, The UAE: An Oasis for Trade and Friendly Ties with Taiwan, „Global Taiwan Brief ” 2019, vol. 4, no. 16, [online] https://globaltaiwan.org/2019/08/the-uaean-oasis-for-trade-and-friendly-ties-with-taiwan/.
Charboneau L., China’s Great Misinformation Wall Crumbles on Xinjiang, „The Hill” 2019, 20 XI, [online] https://thehill.com/opinion/international/471301-chinas-great-misinformation-wall-crumbles-on-xinjiang.
China, Africa Vow to Strengthen Military Cooperation, Xinhua, 23 VII 2023, [online] https://english.news.cn/20230722/3181d289498247a4ab869d5e1a8dadba/c.html.
China-Arab Policy Paper, The State Council The People’s Republic of China, 13 I 2016, [online] https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/publications/2016/01/13/content_281475271412746.htm.
China-Arab Summit Opens Up New Prospects for building Community with Shared Futures, Xinhua, 10 XII 2022, [online] https://english.news.cn/20221210/0c9735e85476455cbeab-955ce12bd86a/c.html.
China Imported Record Amounts of Crude Oil in 2023, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 16 IV 2024, [online] https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=61843.
China Leaves Iran Out of Major Investment Projects, Iran International, 23 X 2023, [online] https://www.iranintl.com/en/202310220074.
China Says U.S. Should Lift Sanctions on Iran, „Tehran Time” 2022, 3 VIII, [online] https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/475365/China-says-U-S-should-lift-sanctions-on-Iran.
China Wants to Be the Leader of the Global South, „The Economist” 2023, 21 IX, [online] https://www.economist.com/china/2023/09/21/china-wants-to-be-the-leader-of-theglobal-south.
China’s Xi Jinping Pledges UNRWA Funding in Gaza Aid Package at Arab Leader Summit, „Times of Israel” 2024, 30 V, [online] https://www.timesofisrael.com/chinasxi-jinping-pledges-unrwa-funding-in-gaza-aid-package-at-arab-leader-summit/.
China’s Military Strategy, The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, 27 V 2015, [online] https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2015/05/27/content_281475115610833.htm.
Comrade Xi Jinping’s Remarks to the Eight Collective Study Session of the CCP Politburo, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 30 VII 2023, [online] https://interpret.csis.org/translations/comrade-xi-jinpings-remarks-to-the-eighth-collective-study-session-of-the-ccppolitburo/.
Crude Petroleum in Chinese Taipei, Observatory of Economic Complexity, [online] https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/crude-petroleum/reporter/twn.
Explainer: Unraveling Peace-Loving DNA of Chinese Civilization, Xinhua, 12 VI 2023, [online] https://english.news.cn/20230612/fa55c14cd8c24a3fb9efd01ecd3eebb0/c.html.
Farouk Y., Riyadh’s Motivations Behind the Saudi-Iran Deal, Carnegie Endowment, 30 III 2023,[online] https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2023/03/riyadhs-motivations-behind-thesaudi-iran-deal?lang=en.
Fitzpatrick M., Saudi Arabia’s Ballistic Missiles Programme: an Overview, The International Institute of Strategic Studies, 27 VIII 2022, [online] https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis/online-analysis/2021/08/saudi-arabia-ballistic-missile-programme/.
Funaiole M., Hart B., McElwee L., Dire Straits: China’s Push to Secure Its Energy Interests in the Middle East, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 3 II 2023, [online] https://features.csis.org/hiddenreach/china-middle-east-military-facility/.
Gacek Ł., Nowy wspaniały świat…? Strategiczne narracje Chin a reforma systemu globalnego zarządzania, Warszawa 2024.
Gacek Ł., Kwieciński R., Trojnar E., Taiwan under Tsai Ing-wen. Democracy Diplomacy, Berlin 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3726/b20491
A Global Community of Shared Future: China’s Proposal’s and Actions, The State Council Information Office of the People’s Republic of China, 26 IX 2023, [online] https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202309/t20230926_11150122.html.
The Global Security Concept Paper, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s China Republic, 21 II 2023, [online] https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjbxw/202302/t20230221_11028348.html.
Ghorbani V., Majd M., Alipour M., An Analysis of China’s Military Diplomacy towards Iran, „Iran Review of Foreign Affairs” 2021, vol. 12, no. 1, https://doi.org/10.22034/IRFA.1999.145358.
Habtor A., Beijing: China, GCC Complete 90% of Free Trade Agreement, „Asharq Al-Awsat” 2024, 30 I, [online] https://english.aawsat.com/business/4822066-beijing-china-gcccomplete-90-free-trade-agreement.
Haug S., Braveboy-Wagner J., Maihold G., The ‘Global South’ in the Study of World Politics: Examining Meta Category, „Third World Quarterly” 2021, vol. 49, no. 9, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1948831. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2021.1948831
Iran and the Battles of Economic Corridors, Press Tv (Iran), 2 XI 2023, [online] https://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2023/11/02/713888/Iran-transit-routes-North-South-Corridor-China-BRI-.
Jalal M., The China-Arab States Cooperation Forum: Achievements, Challenges and Prospects, „Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in Asia)” 2014, vol. 8, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.1080/19370679.2014.12023244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19370679.2014.12023244
Juneau T., Squandered Opportunity: Neoclassical Realism and Iranian Foreign Policy, Stanford 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9780804793056.001.0001
Kozub-Karkut M., Realizm neoklasyczny w perspektywie teorii stosunków międzynarodowych i polityki zagranicznej, Kraków 2020.
Kupchan C., The Vulnerability of Empire, Ithaca–London 1994.
Kwieciński R., Multilateralizm „z chińskim charakterem”, [w:] Normy, wartości i instytucje we współczesnych stosunkach międzynarodowych, red. Ł. Fijałkowski, E. Stadmüller, Warszawa 2015.
Kwieciński R., Smok wynurza się z Zachodniego Oceanu. Chińska strategia „sznura pereł”, [w:] Dylematy strategiczne XXI wieku, red. R. Kłosowicz, B. Szlachta, J.J. Węc, Kraków 2013.
Kwieciński R., Synergia. Rozwój stosunków Chin i Rosji w XXI w., „Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe” 2018, vol. 15, nr 1, https://repozytorium.uafm.edu.pl/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b766d59-abb9-4001-803c-6db86f8e8697/content.
Kwieciński R., W cieniu niepewności. Siła militarna Chin w erze Xi Jinpinga, Kraków 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4467/K7483.148/22.23.17817
Kwieciński R., Zjednoczenie Chin? Proces reintegracji Wielkich Chin na przełomie XX i XXI w., Kraków 2016.
Kwieciński R., Zmiana w polityce zagranicznej Chin w erze Xi Jinpinga, „Krakowskie Studia Międzynarodowe” 2020, vol. 17, nr 1, https://doi.org/10.34697/2451-0610-ksm-2020-1-004.
Lam Wo-Lap W., Chinese Politics in the Era of Xi Jinping: Renaissance, Reform or Retrogression?, New York–Abingdon 2015. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315719368
Lawler D., The 53 Countries Supporting China’s Crackdown on Hong Kong, Axios, 2 VII 2020, [online] https://www.axios.com/2020/07/02/countries-supporting-china-hong-kong-law.
Li Wei, Xi Pools Mighty Force for Building Great Country, National Rejuvenation, China Military, 13 III 2023, [online] http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/CHINA_209163/TopStories_209189/16209136.html.
Li Xi Attends and Addresses the Summit of the G77 and China in Havana, Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in the Hellenic Republic, 16 IX 2023, [online] http://gr.chinaembassy.gov.cn/eng/zgyw/202309/t20230918_11144712.htm.
Liu Xuanzun, PLA Navy Completes 1,600th Escort Mission, Making Concrete Efforts to Safeguard Peace, „Global Times” 2023, 6 XII, [online] https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202312/1303146.shtml.
Lons C., East Meets Middle: China’s Blossoming Relationship with Saudi Arabia and the UAE, European Council on Foreign Relations, 10 V 2024, s. 3-4, [online] https://ecfr.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2024/05/East-meets-middle-Chinas-blossoming-relationship-with-Saudi-Arabia-and-the-UAE.pdf.
Mearsheimer J., The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, New York 2014.
Men Honghua, China’s Grand Strategy: A Framework Analysis, Singapore 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-4257-2
The Military Balance 2021, The International Institute of Strategic Studies, London 2021. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003177777
The Military Balance 2023, The International Institute of Strategic Studies, London 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003400226
The Military Balance 2024, The International Institute of Strategic Studies, London 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003485834
Mukherjee R., China’s Status Anxiety, „Foreign Affairs” 2023, 19 V, [online] https://www.foreignaffairs.com/china/united-states-china-status-anxiety.
Murphy D.C., China’s Rise in the Global South: The Middle East, Africa and Beijing’s Alternative World Order, Stanford 2022. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11126/stanford/9781503630093.001.0001
Nahari E., How a Small Saudi City Explains China’s Role in the Saudi-Iran Agreement, Fikra Forum, 28 VI 2023, [online] https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/howsmall-saudi-city-explains-chinas-role-saudi-iran-agreement.
Ng T., Xi Calls for ‘Asian People to Uphold Asia’s Security’ as He Aims to Sideline US, „The South China Morning Post” 2014, 21 V, [online] https://www.scmp.com/article/1517256/xi-calls-asian-people-uphold-asias-security-he-aims-shut-out-us.
Niu Song, Wang Danyu, „Three Summits” and the New Development of China-Arab States Relations in the New Era, „Asian Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies” 2023, vol. 17, no. 1, https://doi.org/10.1080/25765949.2023.2190610. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/25765949.2023.2190610
Piccone T., China’s Long Game on Human Rights at the United Nations, Brooking Institute 2018, [online] https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/FP_20181009_china_human_rights.pdf.
Pierson D., China’s Role in Iran-Saudi Arabia Deal Shows Xi Global Goals, „The New York Times” 2023, 11 III, [online] https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/11/world/asia/chinasaudi-arabia-iran-us.html.
President Xi Jinping Chairs and Delivers Important Remarks at the High-level Dialogue on Global Development, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 25 VI 2022,[online] https://www.mfa.gov.cn/eng/zxxx_662805/202206/t20220625_10709866.html.
Ripsman N.M., Taliaferro J.W., Lobell S.E., Neoclassical Realist Theory of International Politics, New York 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199899234.001.0001
Schweller R., Neorealism’s Status-Quo Bias: What Security Dilemma?, „Security Studies” 1996, vol. 5, no. 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/09636419608429277. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09636419608429277
Schweller R., Unanswered Threats: A Neoclassical Realist Theory of Underbalancing,„International Security” 2004, vol. 28, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.1162/0162288042879913. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/0162288042879913
Shichor Y., Will and Capabilities: the PRC-ROC Imbalance in the Middle East, „Global Taiwan Brief ” 2021, vol. 6, no. 1, [online] https://globaltaiwan.org/2021/01/will-and-capabilities-the-prc-roc-imbalance-in-the-middle-east/.
Statement by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People’s Republic of China, 2 VIII 2022, [online] https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjdt_665385/2649_665393/202208/t20220802_10732293.html.
Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, [online] https://www.taiwanembassy.org/sa/index.html.
UAE ‘Given Guns’ for Chen visit, „Taipei Times” 2005, 9 X, [online] https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2005/10/09/2003275057.
UAE Stresses Respect for ‘One China’ Principle, Middle East Monitor, 4 VII 2023, [online] https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220804-uae-stresses-respect-for-one-china-principle/.
Waltz K.N., Theory of International Politics, Reading–Menlo Park–London–Amsterdam–Don–Mills–Sydney 1979.
Wolf S.O., The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor of the Belt and Road Initiative: Concept, Context and Assessment, Cham 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16198-9
Workman D., Top 15 Oil Suppliers to China, World’s Top Exports, [online] https://www.worldstopexports.com/top-15-crude-oil-suppliers-to-china/.
Wu Jiao, Zhang Yunbi, Xi in Call for Building of ‘New Maritime Silk Road’, „China Daily”, 4 X 2013, [online] https://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2013-10/04/content_17008940.htm.
Xi Focus: Xi Says Taiwan Question Will be Resolved as National Rejuvenation Will be Reality, Xinhua, 10 X 2021, [online] http://www.news.cn/english/2021-10/09/c_1310233813.htm.
Xi Jinping, Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Strive in Unity to Build a Modern Socialist Country in All Respect, Report to the 20th Congress of the Communist Country of China, Xinhua, 16 X 2022, [online] https://english.news.cn/20221025/8eb6f5239f984f01a2bc45b5b5db0c51/c.html.
Yan Xuetong, From Keeping a Low Profile for Striving for Achievement, „The Chinese Journal of International Politics” 2014, vol. 7, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.1093/cjip/pou027. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/cjip/pou027
Yao Kuangyi, China-Arab States Cooperation Forum in the Last Decade, „Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies (in Asia)” 2014, vol. 8, no. 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/19370679.2014.12023253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19370679.2014.12023253
Zhang Tiejun, Chinese Strategic Culture: Traditional and Present Features, „Comparative Strategy” 2002, vol. 72, no. 2, https://doi.org/10.1080/01495930290043056. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01495930290043056
Zhu Feng, Chinese Diplomacy for Benefit of the World, „China Daily” 2022, 26 X, [online] https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202210/26/WS63586cb6a310fd2b29e7e820.html.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
