Cele polityki zagranicznej Saharyjskiej Arabskiej Republiki Demokratycznej w kontekście uwarunkowań międzynarodowych w regionie Maghrebu
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.20.2024.89.02Keywords:
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, foreign policy, unrecognised state, Morocco, POLISARIO FrontAbstract
THE FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES OF THE SAHRAWI ARAB DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC IN THE CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL CONDITIONS IN THE MAGHREB REGION
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), founded in February 1976 in the territory of the former Spanish Sahara, belongs today to the so-called unrecognised states category that do not meet all the criteria of the statehood. In the case of the SADR, it enjoys the recognition of several dozen UN members, as well as the most important international regional organisation on the continent – the African Union, however, the Sahrawi government controls only about 20% of the territory it claims rights for. Therefore, the axis of the SADR foreign policy is the constant struggle for international recognition, together with the attempts to exert indirect pressure on Morocco, which could persuade it to adopt the Sahrawi resolution to the protracted conflict over Western Sahara. Both of these goals seem increasingly distant, due to the events of the last three years: the Guerguerat crisis that ended the ceasefire between the POLISARIO Front and Moroccan forces, the decision of the administration of President Donald Trump to open a US consulate in the city of Dakhla in the Moroccan-controlled territory contested by the SADR, and the change in the position of the Spanish government – currently expressing support for the Moroccan plan for Western Sahara autonomy. The article is an attempt to analyse the foreign policy of an unrecognised state such as the SahrawiArab Democratic Republic in the context of international conditions in the region (in this case Maghreb), challenges it faces and the possibility of achieving its goals. The paper is largely based on qualitative data collected during field research over the years 2016-2023 conducted during study visits to Algeria and Spain.
Downloads
PlumX Metrics of this article
References
|47a EUCOCO – Conferencia Europea de Apoyo y Solidaridad con el Pueblo Saharaui, [online] https://aapstoledo.org/eucoco/inscripcion/.
Google Scholar
Abdelmadjid Tebboune: Who is Algeria’s New President?, Al Jazeera, 13 XII 2019, [online] https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/12/abdelmadjid-tebboune-algeria-president-1912 13161923647.html.
Google Scholar
Al Qays Talha Jebril I., Morocco-ECOWAS: Good Intentions are Not Enough, MIPA Institute, 9 IX 2023, [online] https://mipa.institute/en/7323.
Google Scholar
Algeria-Morocco Tensions Flare over Border Shooting, Al Arabiya News, 20 X 2014, [online] https://english.alarabiya.net/News/africa/2014/10/20/Algeria-Morocco-tensions-flareover-border-shooting.
Google Scholar
Bartolomé M., Why is Madrid Pandering to Morocco?, Foreign Policy, 13 V 2022, [online] https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/13/spain-sanchez-morocco-polisario-western-saharaalgeria/.
Google Scholar
Belkaïd A., Algeria and Morocco Vie to Keep Russia Onside, Le Monde diplomatique, 6 II 2023, [online] https://mondediplo.com/2023/02/06maghreb-ukraine.
Google Scholar
Bobin F., En Algérie, la dissolution de la Ligue des droits de l’homme illustre l’escalade répressive du régime, Le Monde, 1 II 2023, [online] https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2023/02/01/en-algerie-la-dissolution-de-la-ligue-des-droits-de-l-homme-illustre-l-escalade-repressive-du-regime_6160088_3212.html.
Google Scholar
Bouris D., Fernández-Molina I., Contested States, Hybrid Diplomatic Practices, and the Everyday Quest for Recognition, „International Political Sociology” 2018, vol. 12, no. 3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ips/oly006
Google Scholar
Chograni H., The Polisario Front, Morocco, and the Western Sahara Conflict, Arab Center Washington DC, 22 VI 2021, [online] https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/the-polisario-front-morocco-and-the-western-sahara-conflict/.
Google Scholar
The Constitution of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Adopted by the 14th Congress of the Frente POLISARIO, 16-20 December 2015, ICT Policy Africa, [online] https://ictpolicyafrica.org/en/document/iynr7udq57b?page=1.
Google Scholar
de Orellana P., Struggles over Identity in Diplomacy. ‘Commie Terrorists’ contra ‘Imperialists’ in Western Sahara, „International Relations” 2015, vol. 29, no. 4.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117815571620
Google Scholar
Dworkin A., North African Standoff: How the Western Sahara Conflict is Fuelling New Tensions between Morocco and Algeria, European Council on Foreign Relations, 8 IV 2022, [online] https://ecfr.eu/publication/north-african-standoff-how-the-western-sahara-conflict-isfuelling-new-tensions-between-morocco-and-algeria/.
Google Scholar
Fabiani R., Getting Diplomacy Back on Track in Western Sahara, International Crisis Group, 5 XI 2021, [online] https://www.crisisgroup.org/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/western-sahara/getting-diplomacy-back-track-western-sahara.
Google Scholar
Fabricius P., SADR Grows Theoretically Stronger but Diplomatically Weaker, ISS. Institute for Security Studies, 7 X 2022, [online] https://issafrica.org/iss-today/sadr-grows-theoretically-stronger-but-diplomatically-weaker.
Google Scholar
Fears Grow of New Western Sahara War between Morocco and Polisario Front, Reuters, 13 XI 2020, [online] https://www.reuters.com/article/us-morocco-westernsahara-idUSKBN27T15S.
Google Scholar
Fiddian-Qasmiyeh E., The Ideal Refugees. Gender, Islam, and the Sahrawi Politics of Survival, Syracuse, New York 2014.
Google Scholar
Full Speech of HM the King at 28th African Union Summit, Kingdom of Morocco – oficjalna strona państwowa, 31 I 2017, [online] https://www.maroc.ma/en/royal-activities/full-speech-hm-king-28th-african-union-summit.
Google Scholar
Ghebouli Z.L., Algeria’s Opposition after the Hirak. Limitations and Divisions, Middle East Institute, 22 II 2022, [online] https://www.mei.edu/publications/algerias-oppositionafter-hirak-limitations-and-divisions.
Google Scholar
Hernández H., Algeria to Build a Military Base near the Border with Morocco, Atalayar, 26 VI 2020, [online] https://atalayar.com/en/content/algeria-build-military-base-near-bordermorocco.
Google Scholar
Hill T.M., Ukraine War Puts New Focus on Conflict in Western Sahara. Amid New Tensions, Can Diplomacy Unstick a Long-Stalled Peace Process with Morocco and Algeria?, United States Institute of Peace, 14 IV 2022, [online] https://www.usip.org/publications/2022/04/ukraine-war-puts-new-focus-conflict-western-sahara.
Google Scholar
Huddleston R.J., Can John Bolton Thaw Western Sahara’s Long-Frozen Conflict?, Foreign Policy, 9 V 2019, [online] https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/05/09/can-john-bolton-thawwestern-saharas-long-frozen-conflict-morocco-western-sahara-polisario-minurso-sahrawirepublic/.
Google Scholar
Huddleston R.J., Ghoorhoo H., Maquera Sardon D.A., Biden Can Backtrack on Trump’s Move in Western Sahara, Foreign Policy, 9 I 2021, [online] https://foreignpolicy.com/2021/01/09/biden-can-backtrack-on-trumps-move-in-western-sahara/.
Google Scholar
Informacje uzyskane w trakcie wizyty w Mission Sahraouie – Alger – Centre d’Information Martyr Mohamed Fadel Ismael, Algier, V 2017.
Google Scholar
Israel Recognises Western Sahara as Part of Morocco, Al Jazeera, 17 VII 2023, [online] https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/7/17/israel-recognises-western-sahara-as-part-of-morocco.
Google Scholar
Jakes L., Alami A., U.S. Pressured to Open Consulates in Jerusalem and Western Sahara, New York Times, 30 III 2022, [online] https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/30/world/africa/jerusalem-western-sahara-us-consulates.html.
Google Scholar
Kłosowicz R., Mormul J., Erytrea i jej wpływ na sytuację polityczną w Rogu Afryki, Kraków 2018.
Google Scholar
Kosidło A., Sahara Zachodnia. Fiasko dekolonizacji czy sukces podboju 1975-2011, Gdańsk 2012.
Google Scholar
Le soutien de l’Algérie à la lutte du peuple sahraoui repose sur les principes de sa politique extérieure (Ould Khelifa), Sahara Press Service, 3 VIII 2015, [online] https://www.spsrasd.info/news/spsarchive/fr/node/4274.
Google Scholar
Madueño J.D., Carvajal Á., El “lejano oeste” del yerno del líder de Coalición por Melilla, „El Mundo” 2023, 24 V.
Google Scholar
Messari N., Moroccan Foreign Policy Under Mohammed VI. Balancing Diversity and Respect, Istituto Affari Internazionali, 28 X 2020, [online] https://www.iai.it/it/pubblicazioni/moroccan-foreign-policy-under-mohammed-vi-balancing-diversity-and-respect.
Google Scholar
Military Agreement no. 1 between the Royal Moroccan Army and MINURSO on the one side and the Frente POLISARIO Military Forces and the MINURSO on the other side, XII 1997, [Not published by the United Nations, but mentioned in paragraph 18 of the Report of the Secretary-General to the Security Council S/1998/35], Centro de Estudos do Sahara Occidental da USC, [online] https://www.usc.es/export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/descargas/Military-Agreement-1.pdf.
Google Scholar
Mormul J., Hijos de las nubes i 45 lat marzeń. Uchodźcy Saharawi na terytorium Algierii, „Politeja” 2021, tom 18, nr 6(75), https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.18.2021.75.08.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.18.2021.75.08
Google Scholar
Morocco: A Critical Link in the Latin America-Europe Cocaine Chain, ENACT Africa, 27 I 2023, [online] https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/morocco-a-critical-link-in-the-latin-americaeurope-cocaine-chain.
Google Scholar
Morocco Protests over Killed Jet Ski Tourists in Algeria, Al Jazeera, 4 IX 2023, [online] https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/9/4/morocco-protests-over-killed-jet-ski-tourists-in-algeria.
Google Scholar
Morocco’s Constitution of 2011, Constitute Project, [online] https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/Morocco_2011.
Google Scholar
Otra vez un mapa de Marruecos que incluye a Melilla y Ceuta, El Faro de Melilla, 19 VIII 2023, [online] https://elfarodemelilla.es/otra-vez-un-mapa-de-marruecos-que-incluye-a-melillay-ceuta/.
Google Scholar
Peñalosa G., Afines a Aberchán se vieron con agentes de Rabat antes del fraude, „El Mundo” 2023, 24 V.
Google Scholar
Re-election of Brahim Ghali as Secretary General of the Polisario Front, Sahara Press Service, 20 I 2023, [online] https://www.spsrasd.info/news/en/articles/2023/01/20/43745.html.
Google Scholar
Representación del Frente Polisario para España, [online] https://frentepolisario.es.
Google Scholar
Roussellier J., A Role for Russia in the Western Sahara?, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 5 VI 2018, [online] https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/76532.
Google Scholar
SADR Recognitions, Centro de Estudos do Sahara Occidental da USC, [online] https://www.usc.es/en/institutos/ceso/RASD_Reconocimientos.html.
Google Scholar
Sahrawi Refugees in Tindouf, Algeria: Total In-Camp Population. Official Report, UNHCR, III 2018, Centro de Estudos do Sahara Occidental da USC, [online] https://www.usc.gal/export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/descargas/UNHCR_Tindouf-Total-In-Camp-Population_March-2018.pdf.
Google Scholar
Sajduk B., Tradycyjne metody analizy polityki zagranicznej, [w:] Podmiotowość geopolityczna. Studia nad polską polityką zagraniczną, red. K. Szczerski, Warszawa 2009.
Google Scholar
Schwikowski M., Flotat-Talon H., New African Consulates Cause Trouble for Western Sahara, DW, 31 III 2020, [online] https://www.dw.com/en/new-african-consulates-cause-troublefor-western-sahara/a-52967857.
Google Scholar
Stenner D., Globalizing Morocco. Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State, Stanford, California 2019.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9781503609006
Google Scholar
Szeptycki A., Algieria: wrota do Afryki, [w:] Kuba i Afryka. Sojusz dla rewolucji, red. M.F. Gawrycki, W. Lizak, Warszawa 2006.
Google Scholar
Thieux L., Algerian Foreign Policy towards Western Sahara, [w:] Global, Regional and Local Dimensions of Western Sahara’s Protracted Decolonization. When a Conflict Gets Old, red. R. Ojeda-García, I. Fernández-Molina, V. Veguilla, New York 2017.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95035-5_6
Google Scholar
The United Nations and Decolonization. Non-Self-Governing Territories, United Nations, 4 VIII 2023 (updated), [online] https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt.
Google Scholar
Wilson A., Democratising Elections without Parties. Reflections on the Case of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, „The Journal of North African Studies” 2010, vol. 15, no. 4, https://doi.org/10.1080/13629380903424380.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13629380903424380
Google Scholar
Wywiad z ambasadorem Saharyjskiej Arabskiej Republiki Demokratycznej w Algierii oraz członkiem Krajowego Sekretariatu Frontu POLISARIO Abdelkaderem Taleb Omarem, Algier, V 2023.
Google Scholar
Wywiad z dr. Saïdem Ayachi, przewodniczącym Algierskiego Narodowego Komitetu Solidarności z narodem Saharawi (Le Comité national algérien de solidarité avec le peuple sahraoui), Algier, V 2023.
Google Scholar
Wywiad z Hamdi Buehą, sekretarzem generalnym Ministerstwa Spraw Zagranicznych SARD oraz Mohamedem Hammadim z Departamentu Europy i Świata Arabskiego MSZ SARD, obóz Rabouni, Algieria, V 2016.
Google Scholar
Wywiad z prof. Smailem Debechem, Université d’Alger 3, Algier, V 2023.
Google Scholar
Zięba R., Uwarunkowania polityki zagranicznej państwa, [w:] Wstęp do teorii polityki zagranicznej państwa, red. R. Zięba, Toruń 2005.
Google Scholar
Zunes S., Biden’s Dangerous Refusal to Reverse Trump’s Western Sahara Policy, Foreign Policy in Focus, 21 I 2022, [online] https://fpif.org/bidens-dangerous-refusal-to-reverse-trumpswestern-sahara-policy/.
Google Scholar
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.