Harraga
Illegal Migration of Algerians to Europe – Desperation or Dreams of a European Eldorado?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.21.2024.92.03Keywords:
harraga, illegal migration, France, Algeria, Spain, migration policyAbstract
The external borders of the European Union are becoming increasingly difficult to cross each year. Migrants deprived of legal entry into the EU still attempt to do so illegally. Neither the introduction of visa restrictions nor the closure of borders has reduced the phenomenon of illegal border crossings. The aim of this article is to investigate and describe the harraga phenomenon, which consists of the illegal crossing of the southern sea borders of the European Union by citizens of the Maghreb countries. The author will endeavour to explain the causes and motivations of migrants, with a primary focus on Algerians. In Algeria, the harraga phenomenon differs from other types of migration, and there are political and social reasons behind this phenomenon. Algerian harraga follows its own logic of circumventing restrictions and crossing borders illegally. Risking their lives to leave the country, Algerians view this as their last hope of reaching the ‘European El Dorado’. Obtaining a visa in Algeria today has become a far more challenging undertaking than the perilous crossing of the Mediterranean Sea. For young people, often coming from large working-class families, ‘burning the borders’ is the only way to reach Europe and pursue a different life, often precarious but more stable. Algerians travel to Spain, Italy and Malta, crossing the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, but their primary destination remains France – where economic and social conditions significantly motivate individuals to undertake the dangerous journey to Europe. The research methods used in the article include a literature review, data analysis, synthesis, comparison and case study.
Downloads
References
Abderrezak H., “Burning the Sea: Clandestine Migration Across the Strait of Gibraltar in Francophone Moroccan «Illiterature»,” Contemporary French and Francophone Studies, vol. 13, no. 4 (2009), pp. 461-469, https://doi.org/10.1080/17409290903096335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17409290903096335
Abderrezak H., Ex-Centric Migrations: Europe and the Maghreb in Mediterranean Cinema, Literature, and Music, Bloomington 2016.
Africa-Frontex Intelligence Community Joint Report 2016, at https://data.europa.eu/euodp/data/storage/f/2017-08-03T130749/AFIC_2016.pdf.
Altunişik M.B., “Rentier State Theory and the Arab Uprisings: An Appraisal,” Uluslararası İlişkiler, vol. 11, no. 42 (2014), pp. 75-91.
Anderson B., “‘Illegal immigrant’: Victim or Villain?,” Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, no. 64 (2008), at https://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/WP-2008-064-Anderson_Illegal_Immigrant_Victim_Villain.pdf.
Basedau M., Lay J., “Resource Curse or Rentier Peace? The Ambiguous Effects of Oil Wealth and Oil Dependence on Violent Conflict,” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 46, no. 6 (2009), pp. 757-776, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343309340500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343309340500
Beck L., “Burning Ships and Charting New Pathways in the History of Discovery and Exploration,” Terrae Incognitae: The Journal of the Society for the History of Discoveries, vol. 50, no. 1 (2018), pp. 1-5, https://doi.org/10.1080/00822884.2018.1435463. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00822884.2018.1435463
Benrabah M., “Voyage en Algérie, pays des 66 milliards de dollars de réserve et de l’immense désespoir des jeunes,” Esprit, vol. 12 (2006), pp. 61-75, https://doi.org/10.3917/espri.0612.0061. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/espri.0612.0061
Bensââd A., “Les brûleurs de frontières,” Le Matin d’Algérie, 28 May 2008, at https://www.lematindz.net/news/1520-les-bruleurs-de-frontieres-par-ali-bensaad.html.
“Between Moving and Mourning – the Struggle Along the Routes to Spain Continues,” Alarmphone, 30 April 2021, at https://alarmphone.org/en/2021/04/30/between-moving-and-mourning-the-struggle-along-the-routes-to-spain-continues/.
Blidi S., “Algerian Political Elites Join Illegal Migration Boats to Europe,” The Arab Weekly, 14 July 2021, at https://thearabweekly.com/algerian-political-elites-join-illegal-migrationboats-europe.
Cembrero I., “Sahara occidental. Chantage marocain à l’immigration pour faire plier l’Espagne,” Orient XXI, 2 February 2021, at https://orientxxi.info/magazine/sahara-occidental-chantage-marocain-a-l-immigration-pour-faire-plier-l-espagne,4478.
Chandoul M., Boubakri H., “Migrations clandestines et contrebande à la frontière tuniso-libyenne,” Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationales, vol. 2, no. 7 (1991), pp. 155-162, https://doi.org/10.3406/remi.1991.1299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/remi.1991.1299
Chena S., “Burning the Borders so you don’t Burn your Life: Irregular Migration in Algeria,” Assafir Al-Arabi, 1 April 2020, at https://assafirarabi.com/en/30135/.
Chena S., “Sidi Salem et el harga,” Nouveaux modèles migratoires en Méditerranée, no. 1300 (2012), pp. 52-61, https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.919. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.919
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council: Enhancing Cooperation on Return and Readmission as Part of a Fair, Effective and Comprehensive EU Migration Policy, Brussels, 10.2.2021, COM(2021) 56 final.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the Delivery of the European Agenda on Migration, Brussels, 27.9.2017, COM(2017) 558 final.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: The European Green Deal, Brussels, 11.12.2019, COM(2019) 640 final.
Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions: The EU Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016, Brussels, 19.6.2012, COM(2012) 286 final.
“Corruption Perceptions Index: Algeria,” Transparency International, at https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/table/dza#.
Cuttitta P., “Preface: The Increasing Focus on Border Deaths,” in P. Cuttitta, T. Last (eds), Border Deaths: Causes, Dynamics and Consequences of Migration-related Mortality, Amsterdam 2020, https://doi.org/10.5117/9789463722322_pref. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5117/9789463722322_pref
Daoud Z., Gibraltar. Improbable frontière: de Colomb aux clandestins, Séguier 2002.
Directive (EU) 2016/801 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 May 2016 on the Conditions of Entry and Residence of Third-country Nationals for the Purposes of Research, Studies Training, Volunteering, Youth Exchange Programs or Educational Projects and au Pairing, Official Journal of the European Union, L 132/21, 21.5.2016.
Directive (EU) 2021/1883 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 October 2021 on the Conditions of Entry and Residence of Third-country Nationals for the Purpose of Highly Qualified Employment, and Repealing Council Directive 2009/50/EC, Official Journal of the European Union, L 382/1, 28.10.2021.
Directive 2014/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 February 2014 on the Conditions of Entry and Stay of Third-country Nationals for the Purpose of Employment as Seasonal Workers, Official Journal of the European Union, L 94/375, 28.3.2014.
Directive 2014/66/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on the Conditions of Entry and Residence of Third-country Nationals in the Framework of an Intracorporate Transfer, Official Journal of the European Union, L 157/1, 27.5.2014.
Document de travail conjoint des services. Partenariat renouvelé avec le voisinage méridonial Plan économique et d’investissement en faveur du voisinage méridonial accompagnant le document: Communication conjointe au Parlement européen, au Conseil, au Comité économique et social européen et au Comité des régions. Un partenariat renouvelé avec le voisinage méridional. Un nouveau programme pour la Méditerranée, Publications Office of the European Union, at https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/fbd1f764-6b96-11eb-aeb5-01aa75ed71a1/language-fr.
European Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa: Flexible but Lacking Focus 2018, at https://op.europa.eu/webpub/eca/special-reports/eutf-for-africa-32-2018/pl/.
Fargues F., Rango M., Borgnäs E., Schöfberger I. (eds), Migration in West and North Africa and across the Mediterranean: Trends, Risks, Development and Governance, Geneva 2020.
Filiu J.-P., “L’impasse politique en Algérie relance l’émigration illégal vers l’Europe,” LeMonde, 21 February 2021, at https://www.lemonde.fr/blog/filiu/2021/02/21/limpasse-politique-en-algerie-relance-lemigration-illegale-vers-leurope/.
Fragile State Index: Algeria, at https://fragilestatesindex.org/country-data/.
Gaïdi M.-F., “Arrivée de plus de 600 harraga algériens en Espagne,” El Watan, 15 September 2021, at https://www.elwatan.com/edition/actualite/arrivee-de-plus-de-600-harraga-algeriens-en-espagne-15-09-2021.
Haddadi Z., “Sans-papiers: les Algériens en tête des arrivées en Espagne en 2021,” Visas & Voyages Algérie, 6 March 2021, at https://www.visa-algerie.com/sans-papiers-lesalgeriens-en-tete-des-arrivees-en-espagne-en-2021.
Hadjidj D., “Le paradoxe de l’espace public dans la ville algérienne,” Africa Development, vol. 36, no. 2 (2011), pp. 207-218, http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ad.v36i2.
“How the EU Manages Migration Flows,” Council of the EU, at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/pl/policies/eu-migration-policy/managing-migration-flows/.
Jelloun T.B., Partir, Paris 2006.
Kasznik-Christian A., Algieria, Warszawa 2006.
Kateb K., “Bilan et perspectives des migrations algériennes,” France – Algérie, le temps du renouveau, no. 1298 (2012), pp. 6-21, https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.1568. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.1568
Khaled N., “Adolescents harragas: risquer sa vie comme seule possibilité de réalisation de soi,” Adolescence, vol. 31, no. 3 (2013), pp. 699-709, https://doi.org/10.3917/ado.085.0699. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/ado.085.0699
“L’immigration algérienne en France. De la fin du XIXè siècle à 1962,” Musée de l’histoire de l’immigration, at https://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dossiers-thematiques/caracteristiques-migratoires-selon-les-pays-d-origine/l-immigration-algerienne.
“L’immigration des Algériens,” Observatoire de l’immigration & de la démographie, 6 March 2023, at https://observatoire-immigration.fr/limmigration-des-algeriens/.
Labat S., “Les binationaux franco-algériens: un nouveau rapport entre nationalité et territorialité,” Critique international, vol. 3, no. 56 (2012), pp. 77-94, https://doi.org/10.3917/crii.056.0077. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/crii.056.0077
Labdelaoui H., “Harga ou la forme actuelle de l’émigration irrégulière des Algériens”, in M. Khachani (ed.), CARIM Notes d’analyses et de synthèse – module démographique et économique, no. 18, Florence 2009.
“Legal Migration: Council Adopts Blue Card Directive to Attract Highly-qualified Workers,” Council of the EU, 7 October 2021, at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/pl/press/press-releases/2021/10/07/legal-migration-council-adopts-blue-card-directive-to-attract-highly-qualifiedworkers/.
“Loi n° 09-01 du 29 Safar 1430 correspondant au 25 fèvrier 2009 modifiant et complètant líordonnance n° 66-156 du 8 juin 1966 portant code pènal,” Journal Officiel de la Republique Algerienne Democratique et Populaire, no. 15 (2009), pp. 3-7, at https://www.joradp.dz/FTP/jo-francais/2009/F2009015.pdf.
Lotfi G., “Algérie: Des yachts de luxe pour transporter des harragas en Espagne,” DzairDaily, 3 March 2021, at https://www.dzairdaily.com/algerie-yachts-luxe-transporter-harragas-espagne/.
Love S., Wu L., “Are We in the Same Boat? Ethnographic Lessons of Sheltering in Place from International Seafarers and Algerian Harraga in the Age of Global Pandemic,” Anthropology Now, vol. 12, no. 1 (2020), pp. 55-65, https://doi.org/10.1080/19428200.2020.1761211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19428200.2020.1761211
Mammeri A., “New Penal Code Criminalises Illegal Immigration in Algeria,” Maghrebia, 4 September 2008, at http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/en_GB/features/awi/features/2008/09/04/feature-01.
Marwane A., “Illegal Migration of Algerian Youths: A Haunting Problem,” Fikra Forum, 14 March 2019, at https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/illegal-migration-algerian-youths-haunting-problem.
M’charek A., “Harraga: Burning Borders, Navigating Colonialism,” The Sociological Review Monographs, vol. 68, no. 2 (2020), pp. 418-434, https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120905491. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0038026120905491
Meynier P., Meynier G., “L’immigration algérienne en France: histoire et actualité,” Confluences Méditerranée, no. 77 (2011), pp. 219-234, https://doi.org/10.3917/come.077.0219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/come.077.0219
Migration and Home Affairs: Irregular Migrant, at https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/pages/glossary/irregular-migrant_en.
„Migration Policy: Council Agrees Partial Negotiating Position on Return Directive,” Council of the EU, at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/pl/press/press-releases/2019/06/07/migration-policy-council-agrees-partial-negotiating-position-on-return-directive/.
“Migration within the Mediterranean,” Missing Migrants Project, at https://missingmigrants.iom.int/region/mediterranean.
Missing Migrants Project, IOM 2016, at https://missingmigrants.iom.int/.
“Monitoring and Risk Analysis: Migratory Map,” Frontex, at https://frontex.europa.eu/we-know/migratory-map/.
O’Neill A., “Algeria: Inflation rate from 1989 to 2029,” Statista Research Department, 8 November 2024, at https://www.statista.com/statistics/439788/inflation-rate-in-algeria/.
Orlando V.K., “Harragas, Global Subjects, and Failed Deterritorializations: The Tragedies of Illegal Mediterranean Crossings in Maghrebi Cinema,” in C. Iheka, J. Taylor (eds), African Migration Narratives: Politics, Race, and Space, Rochester 2018, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvb6v7qk.5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvb6v7qk.5
Perruchoud R., Redpath-Cross J. (eds), Glossary on Migration, 2nd edition, Geneva 2011, at https://www.corteidh.or.cr/sitios/observaciones/11/anexo5.pdf.
“Population under Poverty Line in Algeria 2018-2021,” Statista Research Department, 2 May 2024, at https://www.statista.com/statistics/1218877/population-under-thepoverty-line-in-algeria/.
Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Common Standards and Procedures in Member States for Returning Illegally Staying Third-country Nationals (Recast): A Contribution from the European Commission to the Leaders’ Meeting in Salzburg on 19-20 September 2018, Brussels, 12.9.2018, COM(2018) 634 final, 2018/0329(COD).
“Republique Algerienne Democratique Et Populaire Presidence De La Republique. Secrétariat Général du Gouvernement, Code Penal,” at https://www.joradp.dz/trv/fpenal.pdf.
Sansal B., Harraga, Paris 2005.
Souiah F., Salzbrunn M., Mastrangelo S., “Hope and Disillusion: The Representations of Europe in Algerian and Tunisian Cultural Productions about Undocumented Migration,” in M.H. Davis, T. Serres (eds), North Africa and the Making of Europe: Governance, Institutions and Culture, Bloomsbury 2018.
Souiah F., “La pénalisation des «brûleurs» de frontières en Algérie,” Après-demain, vol. 39, no. 3 (2016), pp. 19-21, https://doi.org/10.3917/apdem.039.0019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3917/apdem.039.0019
Souiah F., “Les politiques migratoires restrictives: une fabrique de harraga,” Frontières, no. 1304 (2013), pp. 95-101, https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.2652. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/hommesmigrations.2652
Souiah F., “The “Border Burners” in the Algerian Press,” Orient XXI, 31 January 2017, at https://orientxxi.info/magazine/the-border-burners-in-the-algerian-press,1695.
Szymańska J., “Strategia Unii Europejskiej wobec kryzysu migracyjnego: priorytety, bariery, efekty,” Studia BAS, vol. 3, no. 51 (2017), pp. 159-186.
Teevan Ch. “Algeria: Reforming Migration and Asylum Systems in a Time of Crisis,” ecdpm, November 2020, at https://ecdpm.org/wp-content/uploads/Algeria-Reforming-Migration-Asylum-Systems-Time-Crisis-ECDPM-Country-Report-November-2020.pdf.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), United Nations 2015.
Valletta Summit, 11-12 November 2015, Action Plan, at https://www.consilium.europa.eu/media/21839/action_plan_en.pdf.
Vásquez I., Porčnik T. (eds), The Human Freedom Index 2019: A Global Measurement of Personal, Civil, and Economic Freedom, Washington–Vancouver–Berlin 2019, at https://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/human-freedom-index-files/2019-human-freedom-index-update-2.pdf.
Vignati D., “Media’s Role and Influence on Migratory Policies in the Maghreb,” in I. Ureta (ed.), Media, Migration and Public Opinion: Myths, Prejudices and the Challenge of Attaining Mutual Understanding between Europe and North Africa, Bern 2011.
World Press Freedom Index, 2021, at https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2021#.
Zeidane K., Algérie-Turquie. Visa: voici les nouvelles conditions imposées aux Algiériens, 3 September 2019, at https://afrique.le360.ma/autres-pays/politique/2019/09/03/27731-algerie-turquie-visa-voici-les-nouvelles-conditions-imposees-aux-algeriens-27731.
توملا براوقو ”ةقارحلا“ ةرهاظ ةهجاوم لولح هذه نوحرتقيو ةرهاظلا نوشقاني نوثحابو نويميداكأ at https://www.echoroukonline.com.
ةمصاعلا رئازجلاو ةبانع يتنيدم( ةيفاشكتسا ةسارد)ةقارحلا) ,, at https://dspace.univ-ouargla.dz/jspui/bitstream/123456789/21143/1/busbai3-houda.pdf.
ةمصاعلا رئازجلاو ةبانع يتنيدم( ةيفاشكتسا ةسارد)ةقارحلا( نييرئازجلا نييعرشلا ريغ نيرجاهملا ىدل ةيسفنلا ةنورملاو)
تاذلا ريدقت ,, at https://dspace.univ-ouargla.dz/jspui/bitstream/123456789/21143/1/busbai3-houda.pdf.
تامولعملل ينآ لدابتو ةكرتشم تايرود . at https://www.echoroukonline.com.
لحاوسلا ىلع ةيمارجإلا تاطاشنلاو ”ةقارحلا“ ةبراحمل ةينمأ ةزهجأ 4 at https://www.echoroukonline.com.الأمل في غد أفضل. تراجع في أعداد الحراقة بسبب الحراك الشعبي. الشروق أونلاين منحتهم , at https://www.echoroukonline.com.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
