The Ability to Influence

Understanding the Core Determinants of International Leadership in the 21st Century

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.23.2026.101.06

Keywords:

international leadership, military power, economic strength, soft power

Abstract

The main objective of this study is to identify and to explore the core determinants of international leadership, such as military power, economic strength, diplomacy and technological innovation. It is important to conduct this analysis, because the dynamics of international leadership are evolving. In addition, there is a theoretical gap on this topic. Despite the existence of many works on leadership there have been few studies with a particular emphasis on the determinants of international leadership, and their role in the global landscape. The novum of this research is a focus on a leader’s (state) ability to influence other states. The analysis provides key insights into the evolving factors of international leadership in a global order.

Author Biography

  • Andrzej Demczuk, Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland

    graduated from Seattle University in International Studies. He received a Master’s Degree in International Relations, and PhD in political science from Maria Curie-Skłodowska University. His interests focus on the political leadership with specific emphasis on American presidential leadership. The doctoral thesis, Transformational Leadership in the United States of America, was an analysis of the specific leadership characteristics of three presidents: Bill Clinton, George W. Bush and Barrack Obama, using the Bernard M. Bass’s transformational leadership model. Dr. Demczuk received a Fulbright Junior Research Award in 2020/2021 and conducted research at George Mason University’s Schar School of Policy and Government.

References

Acharya A., The End of American World Order, Cambridge 2014.

Acharya A., Estevadeordal A., Goodman L.W., “Multipolar or Multiplex? Interaction Capacity, Global Cooperation and World Order,” International Affairs, vol. 99, no. 6 (2023), pp. 2339-2365, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad242

Atkinson R.D., “China is Rapidly Becoming a Leading Innovator in Advanced Industries,” ITIF, 16 September 2024, at https://itif.org/publications/2024/09/16/china-is-rapidlybecoming-a-leading-innovator-in-advanced-industries/.

Badawi H., Wattar K., “Soft Power Diplomacy: China’s Influence in Asia and the Middle East,” in M. Zreik (ed.), Soft Power and Diplomatic Strategies in Asia and the Middle East, Hershey 2024, pp. 227-245. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-2444-8.ch014

Baldwin R. The Great Convergence: Information Technology and the New Globalization, Cambridge–London 2016. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv24w655w

Bond S., “China’s Influence Operations against the U.S. Are Bigger than TikTok,” NPR Morning Edition, 26 April 2024, at https://www.npr.org.

Boys J.D., “Strategic Ambiguity: The US Grand Strategy Initiative in Afghanistan,” Policy Studies, vol. 43, no. 6 (2022), pp. 1216-1234, https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2022.2057461. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01442872.2022.2057461

Brands H. (ed.), “16. Lose-Lose: The Economic Sanctions of the Russo-Ukrainian War,” in War in Ukraine: Conflict, Strategy, and the Return of a Fractured World, Baltimore 2024, pp. 273-287.

Bremmer I., “The Technopolar Moment: How Digital Powers Will Reshape the Global Order,” Foreign Affairs, 19 October 2021, at https://www.foreignaffairs.com.

Brittain-Hale A., “Public Diplomacy and Foreign Policy Analysis in the 21st Century: Navigating Uncertainty through Digital Power and Influence,” paper presented at the Graduate Research Conference (GSIS), Old Dominion University, 10 February 2023, https://doi.org/10.25776/ns11‑2e14.

Brzeziński Z., The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives, 2nd ed., New York 2016.

Burns McGregor J., Leadership, New York 1978.

Burns McGregor J., Leadership, reprint, New York 2010.

Cho E.K., “Changes and Implications of China’s High-tech Industry Development Policy after the US-China Conflict,” Korea Institute for Industrial Economics and Trade Research Paper, no. 24 (2024), pp. 43-51, https://ssrn.com/abstract=4767578. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4767578

Demczuk A., “Could the War Have Been Prevented? US Lessons from the Russia’s War in Ukraine,” Polish Political Science Yearbook, 2025, in press.

Demertzis M., Hilgenstock B., McWilliams B., Ribakova E., Tagliapietra S., “How Have Sanctions Impacted Russia?,” Bruegel Policy Contribution, no. 18 (2022), pp. 1-19, https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/274172.

Dogutas A., “Outcomes of Being an International Student in Turkey,” Open Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 12, no. 12 (2024), pp. 798-810, https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2024.1212049. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2024.1212049

Farooq H., Khan M., Uzzaman M.S., “The 21st Century World Order: Rise of China and Challenges to American Global Hegemony,” ASIAN Journal of International Peace & Security (AJIPS), vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 1-12.

Fawcett L., “The Iraq War 20 Years On: Towards a New Regional Architecture,” International Affairs, vol. 99, no. 2 (2023), pp. 567-585, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad002. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiad002

French D., “Iran is Losing. That May Matter More than Israel’s Mistakes,” The New York Times, 29 September 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/29/opinion/iran-israel-nasrallah.html.

French J.R.P., Raven B., “The Bases of Social Power,” in D. Cartwright (ed.), Studies of Social power, Ann Arbor 1959, pp. 150-167.

Fucs D., Dirks E., “The TikTok Debacle: Distinguishing between Foreign Influence and Interference,” Brookings, 24 June 2024, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-tiktok-debacle-distinguishing-between-foreign-influence-and-interference/.

Gereffi G., “Global Value Chains in a Post-Washington Consensus World,” Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21, no. 1 (2017), pp. 9-37, https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.756414. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2012.756414

Ginsburg T., “The Future of Liberal Democracy in the International Legal Order,” in D.L. Sloss (ed.), Is the International Legal Order Unraveling, Oxford 2021, pp. 82-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197652800.003.0004

Gorian E., Dadhich A., “The Winner Takes It All?: Innovations of China’s Soft Power Strategies,” Journal of East Asia and International Law, vol. 17, no. 1 (2024), pp. 25-40, http://dx.doi.org/10.14330/jeail.2024.17.1.02. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14330/jeail.2024.17.1.02

Hebron L., “International (Global) Political Economy,” in R.J. Huddleston, T. Jamieson, P. James (eds), Handbook of Research Methods in International Relations, Cheltenham–Northampton 2022, pp. 198-213. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839101014.00021

Kalhousová I., Finkel E., Kocián J., “Historical Analogies, Traumatic Past and Responses to the War in Ukraine,” International Affairs, vol. 100, no. 6 (2024), pp. 2501-2523, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaf051. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae228

Kramskyi S. et al., “The Race for Global Leadership and Its Risks for World Instability: Technologies of Controlling and Mitigation,” Research Journal in Advanced Humanities, vol. 5, no. 1 (2024), pp. 178-191, https://doi.org/10.58256/5wzf9y48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.58256/5wzf9y48

Lavenex S., Schimmelfennig F., “EU Rules beyond EU Borders: Theorizing External Governance in European Politics,” Journal of European Public Policy, vol 16, no. 5 (2009), pp. 791-812, https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760903087696. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13501760903087696

Manners I., “Assessing the Decennial, Reassessing the Global: Understanding European Union Normative Power in Global Politics,” Cooperation and Conflict, vol. 48, no. 2 (2013), pp. 304-329, https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836713485389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836713485389

Mearsheimer J.J., The Tragedy of Great Power Politics, New York 2001.

Morgenthau H.J., “The Balance of Power,” in K. Thompson (ed.), Realist Tradition Theories: Classical Readings in International Relations, New York 1948, pp. 237-357.

Nabers D., “Power, Leadership, and Hegemony in International Politics: The Case of East Asia,” Review of International Studies, vol. 36, no. 4 (2010), pp. 931-949, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210510001373. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210510001373

Němečková T., Varkočková M., “Turkish Airlines: Facilitating Türkiye’s Soft Power in Africa,” Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, vol. 58, no. 3 (2024), pp. 491-513, https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.2024.2353605. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00083968.2024.2353605

Nolte D., Schenoni L.L., “To Lead or Not to Lead: Regional Powers and Regional Leadership,” International Politics, vol. 61, no. 1 (2024), pp. 40-59, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-021-00355-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41311-021-00355-8

Norrlof C., “Dollar Hegemony, A Power Analysis,” Review of International Political Economy, vol. 21, no. 5 (2014), pp. 1042-1070, https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2014.895773. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2014.895773

Nye J.S., “Andrzej Demczuk Personal Interview Conducted with Professor Joseph S. Nye in the US at Harvard University”, 23 September 2023.

Nye J.S. Jr, Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics, New York 2004.

Panetta L., “Andrzej Demczuk’ s Interview Conducted with Secretary Leon Panetta in the US via Zoom”, 11 September 2023.

Prasad E., “Top Dollar: Why the Dominance of America’s Currency is Harder than Ever to Overturn,” Foreign Affairs, 18 June 2024, at https://www.foreignaffairs.com/united-states/top-dollar-currency-prasad.

Rawnsley G., “Global Opinion Turns Against Beijing: A Failure of Soft Power?,” The Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), 23 August 2023, at https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/global-opinion-turns-against-beijing-failure-soft-power.

Schaake M., “Big Tech’s Coup: How Companies Seized Power from States – and How States Can Claw It Back,” Foreign Affairs, 26 September 2024, at https://www.foreignaffairs.com/brazil/big-techs-coup. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691241180

Shavshukov V.M., Zhuravleva N.A., “Global Economy: New Risks and Leadership Problems,” International Journal of Financial Studies, vol. 8, no. 1 (2020), p. 7-20, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijfs8010007. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijfs8010007

Silander D., “The European Commission on Sustainable Development. A New Normative Power in Its Making?,” Forum for Social Economics, vol. 53, no. 1 (2024), pp. 76-88, https://doi.org/10.1080/07360932.2022.2032255. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07360932.2022.2032255

“Small Group of Rich Nations Have Bought Up More than Half the Future Supply of Leading COVID-19 Vaccine Contenders,” Oxfam, 17 September 2020, at https://www.oxfam.org/en/press-releases/small-group-rich-nations-have-bought-more-half-future-supply-leadingcovid-19.

Smick D.M., “What Will Replace the Globalization Model?,” The Washington Post, 16 October 2012, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/what-will-replace-the-globalizationmodel/2012/10/16/57cf62da-0e6d-11e2-bd1a-b868e65d57eb_story.html.

Statista, Monthly Number of Foreign Tourist Arrivals in Turkey from January 2020 to September 2024, at https://www.statista.com/statistics/1346677/turkey-number-of-foreign-tourist-arrivals/.

Steinbock D., “US-China Trade War and Its Global Impacts,” China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies, vol. 4, no. 04 (2018), pp. 515-542, https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740018500318. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S2377740018500318

Šćepanović J., “Still a Great Power? Russia’s Status Dilemmas Post-Ukraine War,” Journal of Contemporary European Studies, vol. 32, no. 1 (2024), pp. 80-95, https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878

Thangavel P., Chandra B., “Impact of Sanctions on Russia on Global Economy,” International Journal of Business Forecasting and Marketing Intelligence, vol. 9, no. 1 (2024), pp. 1-8, https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBFMI.2024.135717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBFMI.2024.135717

Underdal A., “Leadership Theory,” in International Multilateral Negotiation–Approaches to the Management of Complexity, San Francisco 1994, pp. 178-197.

United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, OCHA oPt, at https://www.ochaopt.org.

Voon J.P., Xu X., “Impact of the Belt and Road Initiative on China’s Soft Power: Preliminary Evidence,” Asia-Pacific Journal of Accounting & Economics, vol. 27, no. 1 (2020), pp. 120-131, https://doi.org/10.1080/16081625.2020.1686841. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/16081625.2020.1686841

Waltz K., Theory of International Politics, New York 1979.

The White House, Statement from President Joe Biden on U.S. support for Ukraine, 26 September 2024, at https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/09/26/statement-from-president-joe-biden-on-u-s-support-for-ukraine/.

Downloads

Published

28-03-2026

Issue

Section

Articles

How to Cite

“The Ability to Influence: Understanding the Core Determinants of International Leadership in the 21st Century”. 2026. Politeja, no. 1(101) (March): 133-55. https://doi.org/10.12797/Politeja.23.2026.101.06.

Similar Articles

61-70 of 288

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.